United States Army Field Manual 7-93 Long-Range Surveillance Unit Operations/Chapter 3

CHAPTER 3 - OPERATIONS

Operations conducted by LRS teams provide critical information to the corps and division commanders. LRS teams accomplish this by collecting the commanders' PIR. Without answers to PIR, the commander cannot make an informed decision as to how to fight the battle. By contrast, the well-informed commander can develop feasible courses of action and make logical decisions on how to fight the battle. The success of LRS operations depends on thorough planning and acquiring PIR and reporting it in a timely manner, while at the same time avoiding detection. LRS team operations are divided into five distinct phases--planning, infiltration, execution, exfiltration, and recovery. However, an LRS element may be involved in more than one phase at the same time, while controlling or supporting deployed teams.

Section I. PLANNING PHASE
The planning phase covers the G2 conception of the mission to the final inspection of the LRS team. Specific actions that normally occur in this phase are--


 * Mission folder preparation. (See Appendix G, paragraph G-2.)
 * G-staff coordination.
 * Warning order.
 * Movement to the planning area.
 * Operations order from the LRSU headquarters with mission folder.
 * Mission analysis by the LRS team leader.
 * Briefback by the LRS team leader.
 * Planning, operation order, rehearsals, inspections, and coordination by the LRS team.
 * Briefback by the LRS team.
 * Final inspection.

3-1. CONTINGENCY PLANS
Each LRS operation requires specific contingency plans for evasion and escape, inflight abort, downed aircraft, emergency resupply, emergency extraction, and lost communications.

3-2. CONTROL MEASURES
Select control measures assist in controlling the team during a mission. These include--


 * Time of departure and return.
 * Points of departure and reentry.
 * Checkpoints.
 * Routes.
 * Forward line of own troops.
 * Phase lines.
 * Restrictive-fire areas.
 * Forward edge of the battle area.

3-3. PLANNING AREA ACTIVITIES
Detailed planning ensures mission success and team survival. On receipt of the warning order, the team begins an intensive preparatory phase at the operations base. The team receives its initial mission briefing there. The planning area is a secure place in which teams that have been committed to operations do their planning and preparing.

a. The team leader and the assistant team leader (and preferably the entire team) receive the mission briefing from the commander or the operations section. The team leader receives the mission folder at the beginning of the briefing to ensure he understands all facets of the operation. New and relevant data can be added to the original data during preparation. (See Appendix G for mission folder information and Appendix H for orders format.) Mission folders normally include--

b. Following the briefing, the surveillance team leader begins his planning. He may conduct a visual reconnaissance of the area of operation. The assistant team leader supervises the initial equipment and personnel preparation, while the team leader is reconnoitering. The TOC personnel are available for coordination throughout the planning phase.
 * The operation order.
 * Maps and overlays.
 * An intelligence update.
 * The intelligence indicators.
 * Terrain, weather, and visibility data.
 * LZ or DZ photographs and data.
 * Photographs of the operations area.
 * The planning area time schedule.
 * Blank manifest cards (DA Form 1306, AF Form 96).
 * Overlay paper.
 * Observer report pads.
 * One-time pads and other cryptographic material.

c. The team leader uses specific steps in planning, preparing, and executing LRS missions. These procedures are comprehensive, yet flexible enough to adapt to any situation. The success of the plan depends on the team leader using the OPORD as his primary planning tool. The briefback is a form of rehearsal and should not be the focus of the planning effort. The following are specific planning steps.


 * (1) Receive and study the mission.


 * Conduct a mission analysis. The team leader identifies the specified, implied, and essential tasks necessary to execute the mission. The team leader also identifies any limitations the team has to contend with. This analysis results in a restated mission containing the essential task(s).
 * Study strengths, locations, dispositions, and capabilities of both friendly and enemy forces that may affect the team's mission.
 * (2) Plan use of time.


 * Prepare a written schedule for required actions.
 * Use the reverse planning technique.
 * (3) Study the terrain and the situation. The team leader uses a map and aerial photos to analyze cover, concealment, observation, obstacles, key terrain features, avenues of approach, and withdrawal routes. (See Appendix C for information on operational environments.)


 * (4) Assign tasks to the team members.


 * (5) Select and request equipment (routine and special).


 * (6) Continue coordination.


 * (7) Issue a warning order.


 * (8) Develop a tentative plan based on analysis of METT-T.


 * (9) Conduct a briefback with the commander.


 * (10) Reconnoiter the area. If visual reconnaissance is not possible, the team leader studies aerial reconnaissance photos to confirm, clarify, and supplement information from maps and other sources.


 * (11) Complete detailed planning.


 * (12) Brief the operation.


 * Use the standard OPORD sequence, shortened and simplified to fit the team situation.
 * Use visual aids (terrain models, chalkboards, and sand tables) if available. If not, improvise to ensure understanding
 * (13) Supervise and inspect the soldiers. The team leader supervises his soldiers throughout the preparation to ensure timely completion of required tasks. Then he conducts inspections to make sure--

All members are camouflaged, understand the mission, and are mentally prepared.
 * Only equipment required for the mission is taken.
 * All equipment is functional, complete, secured, and evenly distributed.
 * (14) Check the communication equipment. The team leader also checks all of the communication equipment with a distant base radio station.


 * (15) Rehearse the mission. The team leader conducts rehearsals as soon as possible after briefing the operation order and inspecting personnel and equipment. The full uniform and equipment required by the mission will be worn or carried during rehearsal. The more complex the procedures, the greater the need for detailed rehearsal. Rehearsals are conducted on terrain and under conditions close to those to be encountered in the operation. They should entail as many contingencies as can be anticipated. They should use simulated casualties among key personnel, with subsequent assumption of duties by other team members. Throughout the rehearsal, team members are asked mission-specific questions. Sand table briefings, map study, and photograph examinations should complement rehearsals. Standard rehearsals should include the following:


 * Off-loading and assembly procedures at points of insertion.
 * Movement formations.
 * Lost-man drill.
 * Security halt procedures.
 * Actions at possible danger areas.
 * Actions in the objective area (entering; maintenance; and sterilization of the hide, surveillance, and communication sites).At a minimum, during hasty planning, rehearsals of actions in the objective area are always completed.
 * Reaction drill for aircraft flyover (friendly or enemy).
 * Counter-tracking techniques.
 * Actions on enemy contact (chance, near and far ambush, sniper, air attack, indirect fire, flares).
 * Loading procedures at the extraction site.
 * Special actions (as required) and use of new or unfamiliar equipment.
 * Procedures for emplacement and recovery of a cache.
 * Actions at designated recovery areas during evasion and escape.
 * (16) Hold a briefback. When mission planning is complete, the team gives a briefback of the entire mission to the commander or the commander's designated representative or operations section. The briefback may be shortened as needed for hasty planning or as the commander deems appropriate based on his knowledge of team experience, and who will receive the briefback. (See Appendix I for a briefback format.) The briefback enables--


 * The commander or operations section to make sure the team understands and is prepared for the mission.
 * The commander or operations section to suggest changes in the plan, if necessary.
 * Team members to ask final questions.
 * The team to conduct a final rehearsal of the plan.
 * (17) Conduct a final inspection. The team leader conducts a final inspection as the last step before the team leaves the planning area. He inspects personnel, personal equipment, and mission equipment with special emphasis on items that were noted for correction during the initial inspection and rehearsals. The team leader questions team members again to reinforce critical facets of the mission.


 * (18) Receive intelligence updates as available.

Section II. INFILTRATION PHASE
The infiltration phase covers all actions from staging for departure to arrival at the infiltration site. The following are specific actions that normally occur in this phase:


 * Staging.
 * Movement by air, water, vehicle, foot, stay-behind, or any combination of these.
 * Assembly.

3-4. MOVEMENT TO THE DEPARTURE AREA
The departure area is where the transporting unit will pickup the team for delivery to the insertion point; or if infiltrating on foot, to the passage point near the forward edge of the battle area. Teams can be infiltrated or exfiltrated by land, sea, or air, or a combination thereof. The most common method is by air insertion--more specifically, by helicopter. Setting patterns that the enemy could exploit must be avoided.

3-5. STAY-BEHIND
This method is used during retrograde operations or withdrawal of covering forces in defensive operations. When possible, the hide site and the surveillance site should be one site to minimize movement.

a. The advantages of stay-behind operations are not having to infiltrate an LRS team into the area of operations, and the ability to pre-position mission-essential equipment and supplies.

b. The disadvantages of this employment are the disruption of C2 associated with the passing advance of enemy forces and the inability to pinpoint locations of interest in the advancing enemy lines of communication.

3-6. INFILTRATION
Infiltration is the first critical phase of an LRS operation, because the team often has to pass through heavily defended terrain where sophisticated detection devices may be used. The selected method of infiltration depends on the mission, enemy situation, resources available, weather and terrain, depth of penetration, training of the team, team survival, and simplicity. The best method is the one that is least likely to be detected. Security and secrecy of movement must not be sacrificed for convenience. The team must maintain the advantage of operating by stealth regardless of the infiltration method. Infiltration requires the support of the corps or division staff to include the G2, G3, fire support officer, air defense artillery officer, and air liaison officer. Certain fundamentals apply to every infiltration. (See Chapter 6 for more information on infiltration.)

a. Intelligence. Operational plans are based on timely and accurate intelligence. The headquarters directing the operation provides the most up-to-date and specific details on the area of operations and infiltration routes from all sources. These include friendly tactical units, other services, and special agents. Special emphasis is placed on efforts to obtain information on the enemy's capability to detect forces infiltrating by air, water, or land. The location and capabilities of air defense radar and weapons systems are critical.

b. Deception. Plans are made to deny the enemy knowledge of the team's infiltration or to deceive him as to the location or intent of the operation. Feints, false insertions, and other cover operations (such as airstrikes, ground attacks, and air assault operations), as well as the use of multiple routes and means of infiltration, electronic countermeasures, and false transmissions contribute to LRSU deception plans. Selection of unexpected means of infiltration, times, places, and routes, coupled with speed and mobility will help deceive the enemy. Planning may also include using diversionary fires to direct the enemy's attention away from the team. Specific techniques that may be used include the following:

c. Speed and Mobility. Speed is essential to limit the amount of time required to insert the team. Individual loads must be tailored to enhance speed and mobility, and balanced with the mission-related items necessary to achieve mission success. If possible, the team should carry only what they need immediately and cache the rest.
 * Multiple airdrops, water landings, or both to preclude detection of the team.
 * Dispersion of infiltration craft (air or water) if more than one, both in time and location.
 * Landing a force in an area closer to other potential targets than to the actual targets to deceive the enemy.
 * Leaks of false information to deceive the enemy.
 * False landings or insertions.
 * Diversionary actions, such as airstrikes in other areas, to distract the enemy from the intended target area.
 * Increased reconnaissance flights over false areas to further confuse the enemy.

d. Stealth. Movement techniques, time of insertion, routes, and the distance from the insertion area to the patrol base are places where stealth must be emphasized to avoid detection or interception by the enemy.

e. Suppression. Every effort is made to suppress enemy detection devices, weapons systems, and command and control facilities by electronic jamming or by suppressive fires. This detracts from the enemy's capability to discover the team during infiltration. Deception techniques contribute to suppression activities.

f. Security. Security measures to prevent compromise of the impending operation are emphasized during preparation. This includes security of rehearsal and training sites, or open use and procurement of special equipment (to include maps of the objective area). Some measures that may be used to assist in maintaining security are--

g. Reconnaissance, Surveillance, and Target Acquisition Considerations. Reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition equipment is used to detect and avoid enemy forces and their detection devices. Passive night vision devices are used to achieve rapid assembly and reorganization. Teams may also use these devices to help control and speed up movement, and traverse seemingly impassable terrain.
 * Restrict access to the planning area.
 * Brief details of the operation to the team in the planning area.
 * Limit knowledge of planned operations to those with a need to know. This may include other LRS teams operating in the same area.

h. Rehearsals. Rehearsals must parallel, as nearly as possible, actual conditions of infiltration or exfiltration. Rehearsals are conducted on terrain similar to that in the area of operations.

i. Sand Tables. In the planning phase, sand tables are extremely effective for orienting personnel on unfamiliar drop zones and surrounding terrain. The use of sand tables and terrain models during the issuance of prejump orders and briefings enhances orderly and rapid assembly on the ground.

3-7. AIR INSERTION
Air insertion is the fastest way to infiltrate. Surveillance teams and equipment may be delivered by parachute (static-line or free-fall technique), fixed-wing (airlanding), or helicopter (airlanding, rappelling, FRIES, ladder, or parachuting).

a. Special Factors. Several factors must be considered when planning an air insertion.


 * (1) Suppression of enemy air defense may be necessary along the infiltration corridor. Suppression of enemy capabilities that may interfere with insertion of the team is essential. This is done by a variety of sophisticated countermeasures applied against enemy equipment and by strikes against known or suspected enemy positions. Assistance may be provided by artillery, aircraft, or naval gunfire.


 * (2) Two primary danger areas are the forward area where the enemy uses many of his most sophisticated weapons systems and air defenses, and critical target areas behind the enemy lines (troop concentrations, military installations, and control centers).


 * (3) Since most of the enemy's detection devices and air defense weapons may be at or near the point of entry, fire support, smoke screens (even at night), and suppressive measures may be critical. Special equipment may be required to counter the enemy's reconnaissance and surveillance effort whether moving by air, water, or land.


 * (4) If this area is within artillery or naval gunfire range, fires should be planned on known and suspected enemy antiaircraft locations and on prominent landforms along the route. Once beyond this area (and perhaps for most of the route), teams will be beyond the range of conventional artillery, and must depend on air (and perhaps naval) assets for fire support.


 * (5) Since teams depend on the transporting unit during this phase, coordinating all aspects of the air insertion with the transporting units is essential. To lower the chances of detection, teams make the best use of reduced visibility, tactical cover, and deception. Drop zones and landing zones should be behind tree lines, in small forest clearings, or on other inconspicuous terrain.


 * (6) All flights over enemy territory should be routed over unoccupied areas. Flights are planned to complement cover and deception phases and to avoid enemy air defenses.


 * (7) In-flight emergencies must be considered, particularly during deep penetrations. The team must know the route and the checkpoints along it. Simple ground assembly plans for contingencies are established before boarding. In an emergency, the platoon leader (LRSC) or commander (LRSD) decides whether to continue or abort the mission. In the absence of the platoon leader or commander, the team leader makes the decision. The decision to continue or abort is based on METT-T factors, contingency plans, and the distance to the target as compared to the distance back to friendly territory. Contingency provisions should be made for air and water rescue as well.

b. Special Airborne Assault Techniques. In airborne insertions during limited visibility, major emphasis is placed on use of special delivery or navigational techniques.


 * (1) With the adverse weather aerial delivery system, personnel and equipment can be airdropped during bad weather, even during zero-visibility conditions. Insertions may be made (day or night) without a pre-positioned USAF combat control team or an Army assault team. The supporting air unit requires both extensive DZ intelligence and significant lead time. Thorough planning and coordination are essential between all forces involved in the operation.


 * (2) High-altitude, low-opening or high-altitude, high-opening jumps with high-performance parachutes let the jumpers maneuver to a specific point on the ground. During these operations, midair assembly procedures may be used.


 * (3) Low-altitude jumps with the rough-terrain suit allow jumpers to land in unimproved drop zones with little dispersion. After these operations, the LRS teams cache the equipment to prevent detection.


 * (4) Ram air static line parachutes allow jumpers to take advantage of the maneuverability and soft landing effects of ram air parachutes. Use of ram air parachutes allows jumpers to land in small drop zones, land softly, and quickly assemble.

c. Assembly. LRS teams must assemble and reorganize quickly and precisely, because they are so vulnerable to detection. Assembly areas and assembly plans are developed after careful consideration of METT-T factors, especially the location of the enemy, visibility, terrain, drop zone information, dispersion pattern, and cross-loading. The number of assembly areas depends on the location, the size of the available assembly areas, and the enemy's detection capability.


 * (1) Using the clock method, jumpers are briefed on the location of the assembly area(s) in relation to the direction of flight of the insertion aircraft with the direction of flight as 12 o'clock.


 * (2) Terrain association may be used as a backup method of designating assembly areas, but it has obvious disadvantages if the unit misses the drop zone, or if an in-flight change in mission dictates use of a new drop zone.


 * (3) During reduced visibility, a night vision plan is necessary during landing, assembly, and movement.


 * (4) During parachute insertion, team members must be ready for enemy engagement at all times, particularly on the drop zone. Immediate action drills are required to counter enemy contact on the drop zone.


 * (5) Cold weather airborne insertion is difficult but not impossible. Allocated times must be increased by at least 30 minutes for cold weather insertions.

d. Planning. The reverse planning process is critical.


 * (1) The ground tactical plan, as developed from the mission assessment, is the first planning area to be considered. All other planning begins from this point.


 * (2) The selection of PZs or LZs requires adequate planning and coordination for effective use of air assets. Site selections must be coordinated face-to-face between the supported LRS team and the aviation commander. The tactical situation is the key planning factor; others include the size of landing points, surface conditions, ground slopes, approach and departure directions, prevailing winds, obstacles, communications, aircraft command and control, PZ and LZ identification, and rehearsals.


 * (3) The air movement plan coordinates movement of the team into the zone of action in a sequence that supports the landing plan. Key considerations are flight routes, air movement tables, flight formation, in-flight abort plan, altitude, and air speed.


 * (4) The landing plan introduces the team into the area of operations at the proper time and place. Rehearsals cannot be overemphasized. The team rapidly assembles, reorganizes, and leaves the insertion site.


 * (5) Fire support, if available, may be artillery, naval gunfire, attack helicopters, or USAF tactical aircraft. The fire support plan supports all other plans. Supporting fires are thoroughly coordinated with the air mission commander.


 * (6) Other planning considerations are evasion and escape, actions at the last LZ, assembly plan, downed aircraft procedures, control measures, weather delays, deception plans, and OPSEC.

3-8. AMPHIBIOUS INFILTRATION
Water infiltration may be by surface swimming, small boat, surface craft, helocasting, or a combination thereof. Detailed information is needed to plan and execute a small-boat landing--the most difficult phase of a waterborne infiltration. Close coordination is required with naval support units.

a. Planning Considerations. Planning must be thorough. While on the transporting craft, plans must be made for all possible enemy action and weather. The transporting unit is given information only on a need-to-know basis. Even then, information that could compromise the operation may be withheld until the mission is underway. Initial planning includes the time schedule, embarkation point, drop site, landing site, and loading.


 * (1) Time schedule. The time schedule of all events from the beginning until the end of the operation is used as a planning guide. Accurate timing for each event is critical to the success of the operation.


 * (2) Embarkation point. The embarkation point is where the team boards the transporting craft.


 * (3) Drop site. The drop site is where the team leaves the primary craft and loads into smaller boats.


 * (4) Landing site. The landing site is where the team beaches its boat or lands directly from amphibious craft.


 * (5) Loading. Loads and lashings, with emphasis on waterproofing, are as established in the SOPs. Supervisors must make inspections.

b. Beach Landing Site Selection. The beach landing site must allow undetected approach. When possible, landing sites that cannot be approached from several different directions are avoided. The site should allow infiltration without enemy detection. If sand beaches are used, tracks and other signs that may compromise the mission are erased. Rural, isolated areas are preferred. The coastal area immediately behind the landing site should provide a concealed avenue of exit from the site. Other factors considered in each selection include--

c. Tactical Deception. In addition to the water approach route plan, plans are made to deny the enemy knowledge of the infiltration. This may include use of electronic countermeasures or diversionary fire support.
 * Enemy dispositions.
 * Distance to the area of operations.
 * Characteristics of landing and exit sites.
 * Availability of cover and concealment.

d. Routes. The route to the drop site is planned to deceive the enemy. If possible, the route is similar to a route used in some other type of naval operation (minelaying or sweeping, or patrolling). A major route change immediately after the team's debarkation could compromise the mission. Alternate routes must be planned.

e. Navigation. Ship-to-shore navigation (to the landing site) may be accomplished by dead reckoning, or the course may be maintained by compass navigation, reference to a shoreline silhouette, or radar.

f. Actions at the Drop Site. A primary and alternate drop site must be coordinated. The drop site should be at least 1,500 meters offshore to preclude compromise by noise during loading and launching. (Some operations may permit landing directly from the transporting craft on shore.) If the enemy has a surface radar capability, the drop site may need to be several miles offshore, or the use of electronic countermeasures may be required.

g. Actions at the Beach Landing Site. To plan actions at the landing site, teams must consider the following:

h. Actions on the Beach. Once on the beach, team members move to a covered and concealed position, conduct a brief listening halt, and then check the beach landing area for signs of enemy activity.
 * Actions during movement to the beach.
 * Noise and light discipline.
 * Navigational techniques and responsibilities.
 * Actions on the beach.
 * Plan for unloading boat(s) (SOP).
 * Plan for disposal or camouflage of boat(s).


 * (1) Upon landing, designated personnel immediately move into covered and concealed security positions to defend the landing site.


 * (2) Boats may be deflated and buried or camouflaged near the landing site or away from it, depending on the enemy situation, the terrain, and the time available. If the boat(s) is to be disposed of or hidden near the landing site, a team member(s) is designated to dig holes or cut brush for camouflage. After the boat(s) is disposed of, designated members sweep the beach to erase tracks and drag marks.

i. '''Insertion by Air From Ship. Helicopters launched from a ship may extend the range of infiltrating teams. Helicopters may be vectored from ships to a predetermined landing zone. Once in the air, other aspects of landing and assembling are the same as discussed for air movement operations.'''

j. Helocasting. This form of insertion combines helicopters and small boats into the same operation. It is planned and conducted much the same as airmovement operations, except that the LZ is in the water. While the helicopters move at low levels (10 feet) and low speeds (10 knots), the teams launch the small boats and themselves into the water. Members then assemble, climb into the boats, and continue the mission.

k. Contingency Planning. The following contingencies are covered in the planning stage:

l. Rehearsals. The team must rehearse all aspects of the amphibious infiltration to include boat launching, paddling, boat commands, capsize drills, beaching, and assembly.
 * Enemy contact en route.
 * Enemy contact at the helocast site.
 * Flares.
 * Aerial attack.
 * Indirect fire.
 * Downed aircraft procedures (if applicable).
 * Evasion and escape.
 * High surf.
 * Adverse weather.
 * Separation.

3-9. LAND INFILTRATION
Land infiltration from a departure point to the area of operations sometimes may be the best (or only) way to infiltrate. Normally, this is when the enemy has air superiority or has established effective air defenses. The LRS teams can accomplish land infiltration over any type of terrain, in any climate--but thick forests, swamps, and broken or steep terrain probably offer the best chance of success.

a. Planning Considerations. Plans for overland movement enable the team to move to the area of operations with the least risk of detection.


 * (1) Concealed primary or alternate routes are selected based on detailed map reconnaissance and aerial photographs, ground reconnaissance, and data on the enemy situation from other sources.


 * (2) Obstacles, populated areas, silhouetting, enemy positions, main avenues of approach, and movement along heavily populated routes and trails must be avoided.


 * (3) The time of infiltration should be during reduced visibility and reduced alertness. The time is especially important during critical phases (crossing borders and passing through enemy troop concentrations or populated areas).


 * (4) Team members must know routes, rally points (and alternates), time schedules, danger areas, and enemy situation. These are critical to speed and stealth.


 * (5) The team should be provided centralized coordination to ensure that all members are acting in accordance with cover and deception plans. Infiltration by land is characterized by centralized planning and decentralized execution.

b. Actions on Enemy Contact. Once inside enemy territory, the team must be constantly alert to avoid detection while en route to the area of operations. (See Appendix J for battle drills.)


 * (1) If the team becomes aware of enemy presence, it trys to move away undetected.


 * (2) The team fights only when there is no alternative. Then it breaks contact as quickly as possible. Following enemy contact, the team leader decides whether to abort or continue the mission.


 * (3) Following enemy contact, the team may have to establish a temporary position for resupply, evacuation of wounded, or extraction.

c. Stay-Behind Technique. The team purposely allows itself to be passed by the enemy to perform a specific mission. Stay-behind operations sometimes require the concealment or cache of extensive supplies before the enemy bypasses. It may also require construction of a hide position. Other key considerations are--

d. Actions at the Infiltration Site. A detailed assembly plan must be developed. It is based on the infiltration method and the terrain at the infiltration site.
 * Camouflage.
 * Noise and light discipline.
 * Avoidance of enemy contact.
 * Timing.
 * Rough, inaccessible terrain.
 * Medical evacuations.
 * Communications.
 * Linkup.
 * Method of exfiltration.
 * Evasion and escape.


 * (1) An assembly area is selected that can be identified at night and that is near the infiltration site. The assembly area is used in case individuals become separated from the team during the infiltration. During parachute insertion, the assembly area is used as an assembly point.


 * (2) An initial rally point that can be identified at night is also designated. It is normally no closer than several hundred meters to the infiltration site. It is used for assembly in case the team is attacked while infiltrating or shortly after departing the infiltration site.


 * (3) When the infiltration is complete, the team leader accounts for all personnel, equipment, and supplies. Injuries are treated. If an incapacitating injury occurs, the team leader must decide, based on guidance, whether to continue the mission or request extraction. The casualty's equipment and supplies are redistributed. The most critical task is verifying the team's location. This must be done at the infiltration site, or as soon as possible after departing the site, if there are no identifiable terrain features at the infiltration site.


 * (4) The site is sterilized, and nonessential equipment is cached or discarded. Burial away from the infiltration site is the preferred method. The cache site must be well camouflaged.


 * (5) The team leaves the infiltration site, then halts to listen for sounds of pursuit and to become familiar with the local sounds. It establishes a primary azimuth and immediately begins intelligence information collection activities and map update.

Section III. EXECUTION PHASE
The execution phase covers actions from the movement from the infiltration site to arrival at the extraction site including all actions in the area of operations. Specific actions that normally occur in this phase are--


 * Movement to the area of operations.
 * Occupation of the hide site.
 * Selection of the surveillance site.
 * Actions in the area of operations.
 * Reporting.
 * Movement to the exfiltration site.

3-10. MOVEMENT TO THE AREA OF OPERATIONS
Regardless of the means of infiltration, the selection of the route to the area of operations is critical. Enemy location, detection devices, and defensive capabilities; terrain; weather; and man-made obstacles must all be considered when selecting the primary and alternate routes. En route checkpoints are selected to keep track of the team. The teams can operate during reduced visibility by using night observation devices. The team's extensive training and land navigation skills allow them to rapidly traverse rugged terrain while avoiding detection. (See Appendix L for movement techniques.)

a. Movement Formations. Movement formations may vary during infiltration into the area of operations. The formation selection is based on visibility, terrain, and enemy disposition. Movement is keyed to the steps below. Movement should be covered in detail in the LRSU SOP.

b. Movement Security. Each team member must be security conscious. The team must maintain continuous all-round security. During movement, each team member is responsible for an assigned security sector. The team's route must make the best use of cover and concealment. Security and listening halts are made as necessary. Camouflage of individuals and equipment must be enforced at all times.
 * Team members maintain visual contact at a normal interval. (Interval can expand and contract based on terrain and visibility.)
 * Members maintain noise and light discipline always.
 * Each member observes the sector of responsibility assigned to him by the team leader.
 * Team members react as their team leader does. (That is, when he gets down, they get down.)
 * The team leader positions himself where he can best control the team.
 * The team moves on routes that best conceal its movement from enemy observation, and cover its movement from direct enemy fire.
 * The formation closes when moving through obstructions (darkness, smoke, heavy brush, narrow passes, and minefields).
 * If the formation closes to single file, team members react as does the member to their immediate front.
 * The formation opens when obstructions to movement and control lessen.

c. Arm-and-Hand Signals. To reduce oral communication and to assist in control, the team leader establishes standard arm-and-hand signals. These signals should conform to those listed in FM 21-60 and the team SOP.

3-11. HIDE SITE AND SURVEILLANCE SITE OCCUPATION
The tentative hide site and surveillance site(s) and routes are selected during the planning phase by map and aerial photograph reconnaissance. The team moves near to the tentative hide site and sets up an ORP. The team leader and one or two other members reconnoiter the site. They make sure the site is suitable and, if possible, the area to be observed can be seen from the site at ground level. The reconnaissance is made during limited visibility. The reconnaissance element then returns to the ORP and briefs the remainder of the team on the site occupation plan and their individual duties. The team then moves to the site and occupies it as prescribed.

They watch and listen for the enemy before starting construction. The process is duplicated for occupation of the surveillance site(s) if a separate site is to be used. (See Appendix E for more information on hide and surveillance sites.)

3-12. SITE SELECTION
The selection of the hide site and surveillance site(s) is METT-T dependent. Considerations for site selection are--


 * Can the team place the designated surveillance target(s) under continuous and effective observation and within the range of surveillance devices to be used?
 * Will the surveillance site have to move if weather and light conditions change?
 * Does the area provide concealment and entrance and exit routes?
 * Are there dominant or unusual terrain features nearby?
 * Is the area wet, is there adequate drainage, or is the area prone to flooding?
 * Is the area a place the enemy would want to occupy?
 * Is the site silhouetted against the skyline or a contrasting background?
 * Are there roads or trails nearby?
 * Are there other natural lines of movement nearby (gullies, draws, any terrain easy for foot movement)?
 * Could the team be easily trapped in the site?
 * Are there any obstacles to prevent vehicle movement nearby (roadside ditch, fence, wall, stream, river)?
 * Are there any inhabited areas in the prevailing downwind area.
 * Are there any suitable communication sites nearby?
 * Is the site(s) in the normal line of vision of enemy personnel in the area?
 * Is there a source of water in the area?

3-13. ACTIONS IN THE AREA OF OPERATIONS
The primary method of employing surveillance teams is in a hide or surveillance site. However, the terrain, mission, and location of the site may dictate that the team leader establish a separate surveillance site(s) to effectively observe the area.

a. Noise, light, litter, and odor discipline must be maintained at all times. The team curbs movement (day and night) and talks only in whispers. Arm-and-hand signals are the normal mode of communication; however, if dictated by distance and vegetation, a messenger or FM communication may be used.

b. A minimum of two soldiers are required to conduct surveillance. One observes while the other records the information in the surveillance log. Because observer efficiency decreases rapidly after 30 minutes, the observer and the recorder switch duties about every 30 minutes. When using night vision devices, the observer's initial period of viewing is 10 minutes followed by a 15-minute rest period. After several periods of viewing, the period is extended to 15 to 20 minutes. Hide site personnel should be rotated every 24 hours.

c. During limited visibility, two to three (normally three) members may be required to set up a new surveillance site. The site is near the target area so that information may be collected through close-in observation and sound detection. The remainder of the team stays in the hide site. The surveillance site and the route to and from it are selected during good visibility. Members go in and out of the surveillance site during limited visibility. One member observes, one records, and one maintains security to the rear and flanks. Only passive night vision devices are used to help prevent detection.

d. The hide site may not be suitable for transmitting reports. When this is the case, a separate communication site is needed. A minimum of two personnel is required at the communication site; one to erect the antenna and send the message, and one to provide security. The communication site is occupied long enough to transmit the message and conceal any signs of the team's presence.

e. Hasty sites are used when the team plans to occupy for a short period (generally less than six hours). This most often occurs during reconnaissance or target-acquisition missions.


 * (1) The team makes the best use of natural cover and concealment. It uses man-made camouflage materials as required to improve concealment, keeping movement to a minimum.


 * (2) Generally, two or three members are positioned forward to observe the target area and record information. The hasty hide site is positioned far enough to the rear so it is out of the direct line of enemy observation. The distance normally depends on terrain and vegetation. It must be far enough away from the surveillance element so that if one of the two elements is discovered by an enemy force, the other element has enough stand-off to prevent them from being discovered also. The position will allow them to fire on the enemy, and enable one or both elements to break contact. The team members in the hasty hide site maintain rear and flank security. Communication is normally conducted after the team moves away from the area.

3-14. REPORTS
The team follows the communication procedures as outlined in the SOP. The team members must make sure that communication is maintained throughout the mission by the use of directional antennas, masking, and burst transmissions.

a. The team reports information as directed by the operational schedule. Team members normally do not try to analyze the information but report what they see based on SIR. Then, G2 personnel analyze this information. Information reporting is formatted in accordance with the SOP and the type of communication equipment used. However, intelligence reports are always keyed to the mnemonic (memory aid) SALUTE:

b. Other reports that the teams may use, such as emergency resupply, communication checks, emergency extraction, should also be formatted in accordance with the SOP.
 * Size.
 * Activity.
 * Location.
 * Unit.
 * Time.
 * Equipment.

3-15. MOVEMENT TO THE EXTRACTION SITE
The principles of route selection, movement formations, and movement security are observed during movement to the extraction site.

a. Priorities. The time that a team remains in enemy territory depends on its mission, composition, and equipment. The exfiltration is critical from a standpoint of morale and mission accomplishment. Plans for extraction by air, ground, or water are made before the operation, with alternate plans for contingencies such as the evacuation of sick or injured personnel. During the mission, the team leader may be faced with an unforeseen situation that may demand the utmost flexibility, discipline, and leadership.

b. Code Words. Each team is given code words in the operation order for use during exfiltration. For example, one code word may mean that the team is at its pickup zone. Another may mean that both the primary and alternate pickup zones are compromised and to abort the extraction.

c. No Communication. When a team has missed a certain number of required transmissions, the operations section assumes that the team has a communication problem, is in trouble, or both. At that time, the no-communication resupply and exfiltration plan is used.

d. Alternatives. Exfiltration of the team may be by means other than air. The operation order may specify exfiltration by land, water, or linkup with friendly forces in an offensive operation. Any of these means may also be planned as alternates in the event the team cannot be extracted by aircraft--or to avoid capture.

e. Ground Exfiltration. Despite the desirability of extracting teams by aircraft or linkup, use of these methods may be precluded by security of the team, poor communication, or enemy air defense. Teams must be trained in exfiltration techniques so they can walk out either singly or in groups.

Section IV. EXFILTRATION PHASE
The exfiltration phase covers the arrival at the exfiltration site to arrival at the debriefing site. Specific actions that normally occur in this phase are--

The team is extracted as quickly as possible after the mission is accomplished. An extraction site is always planned for and coordinated with supporting forces; however, the situation may dictate that the team leader decide whether to use the planned extraction site or exfiltrate. The team must be prepared to exfiltrate over predetermined land routes to friendly lines either as a team or in small groups or to exfiltrate to an area for extraction by air or water.
 * Security of the exfiltration site.
 * Movement by air, water, land, or any combination of these.
 * Arrival in friendly territory.
 * Arrival at the debriefing site.

3-16. DISTANCES
Since LRS operations are conducted deep, distance generally precludes an all-land exfiltration. The initial phase may be by land, ending in extraction by air or by water. However, the team must be prepared to exfiltrate the entire distance unassisted if necessary.

3-17. TERRAIN
The terrain is important in selecting the extraction means. The extraction site must offer favorable tactical considerations, tide data, PZ suitability, and cover from enemy direct-fire weapons. The team uses unlikely terrain (such as swamps, jungles, and mountain areas) for extraction.

3-18. ENEMY
Enemy pressure can develop during the extraction. Detailed plans are made for contingency exfiltrations forced by the enemy.

3-19. EVASION AND ESCAPE
Pre-infiltration planning includes the development of an evasion and escape plan. The team leader checks all factors that deal with survival and evasion opportunities. He devises an evasion and escape plan that provides the best chance of survival and return to friendly lines in view of the hazards involved and the mission objectives. He briefs all members of the team on the evasion and escape plan. (See FM 90-18.)

a. Each mission has its own peculiar problems associated with evasion and escape. The devised plan conforms to this unique set of problems, while exploiting the individual capabilities and training of the team members and their supporting air or boat crews. The following generalities apply to evasion and escape plans devised for LRS operations:

b. Evasion and escape plans cover three phases:
 * The purpose of the plan is to save personnel who no longer have the means to complete the assigned mission.
 * When behind enemy lines, a team's most successful evasions may involve, at some point, air or water movement away from enemy-held territory.

c. The team may be required to hide for several days to allow the enemy to become complacent before trying to move.
 * Phase one occurs after entry into the area of operations.
 * Phase two occurs near the area of operations. It allows the team to pursue its mission with a reasonable chance of success.
 * Phase three occurs after the mission is accomplished. It is often the most difficult time to evade and escape.

d. In selecting extraction sites, the danger of compromising other activities must be considered. Alternate plans must be prepared for unforeseen developments.

e. Linkup with friendly partisans to assist during evasion and escape is possible. Individual team member peculiarities allow identification by the partisans. (See Appendix F.)

3-20. EXTRACTION BY AIR
Extraction by air or water is favored when the resources are available and when their use will not compromise the mission.

a. Considerations. Other considerations that favor this method are when--

b. Techniques. Several techniques may be used to extract the LRS teams:
 * Long distances must be covered.
 * The time of return is essential.
 * The enemy does not have air and naval superiority.
 * Heavily populated hostile areas obstruct exfiltration.
 * The team cannot be resupplied.
 * Casualties must be extracted.


 * (1) Helicopter landing. This is the best method. It lets the team board the helicopter with their equipment in the least time.


 * (2) Troop ladder. The troop ladder allows the team members to board the helicopter. But, if necessary, the helicopter can lift off while soldiers are still on the ladder.


 * (3) SPIES or FRIES extraction systems. Both systems allow rapid pickup of an LRS team on land or in water by helicopter. Personnel are picked up and moved--suspended on a rope beneath the helicopter--to an area where the aircraft can land. The team members then board the helicopter.


 * (4) Jungle penetrator. The jungle penetrator retrieves personnel from areas where helicopters cannot land. It can pick up one to three persons at a time.

3-21. LAND EXFILTRATION
Land exfiltration is favored when friendly lines are close or no other means of extraction is available. It is also used when the terrain provides cover and concealment for foot movement of small groups and limits the employment of enemy mobile units against the exfiltrating team. Other considerations favoring this method are when--


 * Areas along exfiltration routes are uninhabited.
 * The enemy force is widely dispersed or is under such pressure that it is difficult for them to concentrate against the exfiltrating team.
 * The enemy force can stop air or water extraction.
 * Friendly forces are conducting offensive operations and anticipate movement over or occupation of the area in which the team is operating.

Section V. RECOVERY PHASE
The recovery phase covers the arrival at the debriefing site to notification of follow-on missions. Specific actions that normally occur in this phase are debriefing, equipment maintenance and turn-in, stand-down, and training. This is the last phase of an LRS operation. At the end of this phase, the team begins preparing for future missions.

3-22. DEBRIEFING
As soon as a team returns to the COB or DOB, it is directed to a secure area to prepare for debriefing. In preparing for a debriefing, the team--


 * Accounts for all team and individual equipment.
 * Reviews and discusses the events listed in the team notebook, from infiltration to return to the operations base, including the details of each enemy sighting.
 * Prepares overlays of the team's route, area of operations, infiltration point, exfiltration point, and sighting locations.
 * The debriefing is normally conducted by operations and intelligence personnel. A communication representative debriefs the RATELO separately after the team debriefing. The team leader is directed to first discuss any enemy sightings since the last communication transmission. Then he gives a step-by-step discussion of every event listed in the team notebook, from the infiltration until the return to the operations base. When the debriefing is over, the team is released for equipment maintenance and turn-in. (See Appendix I for a debriefing format.)

3-23. EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE AND TURN-IN
All team, individual, and special equipment is accounted for. Team members inspect, clean, and make operator repairs on all individual and team equipment. Equipment is turned in as required. Damaged equipment and equipment with missing components are cleaned, tagged, and turned in. Members report lost equipment.

3-24. STAND-DOWN
After equipment maintenance and turn-in, the team is allowed to stand-down. The length of the stand-down depends on the team's condition and existing mission requirements. Teams are allowed to relax as much as possible during stand-down; however, OPSEC is still maintained.

3-25. TRAINING
During the stand-down, the team conducts an after-action review. This is conducted regardless of whether the mission was in combat or for training. Strengths and weaknesses from the team's recently completed mission are discussed. A training plan is devised to address results of the after-action review. Training replacement team members may also be necessary. The importance of continued training cannot be over emphasized, because the team could be alerted for another mission at any time.