Tucker v. Alexandroff/Opinion of the Court

Upon the facts of this case, the district court and court of appeals were agreed in the opinion that neither under terms of the treaty of 1832 with Russia, nor upon principles of international comity, could the relator be delivered over to the master of the Variag as a deserter.

In committing him to the Philadelphia County Prison, the commissioner acted in pursuance of Rev. Stat. § 5280, which provides as follows: 'Sec. 5280. On application of a consul or vice-consul of any foreign government having a treaty with the United States stipulating for the restoration of seamen deserting, made in writing, stating that the person therein named has deserted from a vessel of any such government, while in any port of the United States, and on proof by the exhibition of the register of the vessel, ship's roll, or other official document, that the person named belonged, at the time of desertion, to the crew of such vessel, it shall be the duty of any court, judge, commissioner of any circuit court, justice or other magistrate, having competent power, to issue warrants to cause such person to be arrested for examination.' The procedure is then set forth.

The facts were, in substance, that Alexandroff entered the Russian naval service as a conscript, in 1896, at the age of seventeen, and was assigned to the duties of an assistant physician. Some time in October, 1899, an officer and a detail of fifty-three men, among whom was Alexandroff, were sent from Russia to Philadelphia to take possession of and man the Variag, then under construction by the firm of Cramp & Sons, in that city. The Variag was still upon the stocks when the men arrived in Philadelphia. She was, however, launched in October or November, 1899, and at the time Alexandroff deserted was lying in the stream still under construction, not yet having been accepted by the Russian government. Alexandroff left Philadelphia without leave April 20, 1899, went to New York, and there renounced his allegiance to the Emperor of Russia, declaring his intentions of becoming a citizen of the United States. He was subsequently arrested upon the written request of the Russian vice-consul, and on June 1, 1900, was committed upon a mittimus stating that he had been charged with desertion from the imperial Russian cruiser Variag, upon the complaint of the captain, in accordance with the terms of the treaty between the United States and Russia.

The vice-consul, who prosecutes this appeal on behalf of the Russian government, relies chiefly upon article IX. of the treaty of December, 1832, which reads as follows (8 Stat. at L. 444): 'The said consuls, viceconsuls, and commercial agents are authorized to require the assistance of the local authorities for the search, arrest, detention, and imprisonment of the deserters from the ships of war and merchant vessels of their country. For this purpose they shall apply to the competent tribunals, judges, and officers, and shall in writing demand said deserters, proving by the exhibition of the registers of the vessels, the rolls of the crews, or by other official documents, that such individuals formed part of the crews; and, this reclamation being thus substantiated, the surrender shall not be refused.' Sections VIII. and IX. of the treaty, which cover the whole subject of deserting seamen, are reproduced in the margin.

While desertion is not a crime provided for by any of our numerous extradition treaties with foreign nations, the arrest and return to their ships of deserting seamen is no novelty either in treaties, legislation, or general international jurisprudence. The 9th article of the treaty with the government of France, entered into November 14, 1788, before the adoption of the Constitution, contained a stipulation that 'the consuls and vice-consuls may cause to be arrested the captains, officers, mariners, sailors, and all other persons, being part of the crews of the vessels of their respective nations, who shall have deserted from the said vessels, in order to send them back and transport them out of the country,' specifying the procedure. 8 Stat. at L. 106, 112. The same provision was contained in subsequent treaties with France, of June 24, 1822, and February 23, 1853, and it was to carry these and similar treaties into effect that the act of 1829, reproduced in Rev. Stat. § 5280, was adopted. Similar conventions were entered into with Brazil in 1828, Mexico in 1831, Chili in 1832, Greece in 1837, Bolivia in 1858, Austria in 1870, Belgium in 1880, and at different times with some seventeen or eighteen other powers, and finally by a special treaty with Great Britain, ratified June 3, 1892. In short, it may be said that, with the exception of China, the Argentine Republic, and possibly a few others, there is not a maritime nation in the world with which we have not entered into a convention for the arrest and delivery over of deserting seamen. The multitude of these conventions is such as to indicate a pressing necessity that masters of vessels should have some recourse to local laws to prevent their being entirely stripped of their crews in foreign ports.

A like provision for the arrest and delivery over of seamen deserting from domestic vessels, adopted by the first Congress in 1790 (1 Stat. at L. 131, 134, chap. 29), was sustained by this court in Robertson v. Baldwin, 165 U.S. 275, 41 L. ed. 715, 17 Sup. Ct. Rep. 326, and remained upon the statute books for over a hundred years, when it was finally repealed in 1898. 30 Stat. at L. 755, 764, chap. 28.

We are cited to no case holding that courts have the power, in the absence of treaty stipulations, to order the arrest and return of seamen deserting from foreign ships; and it would appear there was no such power in this country, inasmuch as § 5280, under which the commissioner is bound to proceed, limits his jurisdiction to applications by a consul or vice-consul of a foreign government having a treaty with the United States for that purpose.

In Moore on Extradition, § 408, it is laid down as a general proposition that, in the absence of a treaty, the surrender of deserting seamen cannot be granted by the authorities of the United States; and an opinion of Attorney General Cushing (6 Ops. Atty. Gen. 148) is cited upon that point. There is also another to the same effect. 6 Ops. Atty. Gen. 209. It is believed that in all the instances which arose between the United States and Great Britain prior to the treaty of 1892 for the reclamation of deserting seamen, both powers have taken the position that in the absence of a treaty there can be no reclamation. Several instances of this kind are cited by Mr. Moore in his treatise.

In the case of the United States v. Rauscher, 119 U.S. 407, 30 L. ed. 425, 7 Sup. Ct. Rep. 234, it was held that, apart from the provisions of treaties upon the subject, there was no well-defined obligation on the part of one country to deliver up fugitives from justice to another, 'and though such delivery was often made, it was upon the principle of comity, and within the discretion of the government whose action was invoked, and it has never been recognized as among those obligations of one government towards another which rest upon established principles of international law.'

The only case in our reports even indirectly considering such a case as one of international comity is that of The Exchange v. McFaddon, 7 Cranch, 116, 3 L. ed. 287. This was a libel for possession promoted by the former owners of the Exchange, who alleged that she had been seized under the orders of Napoleon and in violation of the law of nation; that no decree of condemnation had been pronounced against her, but that she remained the property of the libellants.

The district attorney filed a suggestion to the effect that the vessel, whose name had been changed, belonged to the Emperor of the French, and while actually employed in his service was compelled, by stress of weather, to enter the port of Philadelphia for repairs; that if the vessel had ever belonged to the libellants, their title was devested according to the decrees and laws of France in such case provided. The district judge dismissed the libel upon the ground that a public armed vessel of a foreign sovereign in amity with our government is not subject to the ordinary judicial tribunals of our country, so far as regards the question of title, by which such sovereign holds the vessel.

On appeal, this court, through Mr. Chief Justice Marshall, held that the decree of the district court should be affirmed; that the 'perfect equality and absolute independence of sovereigns, and this common interest impelling them to mutual intercourse and an interchange of good offices with each other, have given rise to a class of cases in which every sovereign is understood to waive the exercise of a part of that complete exclusive territorial jurisdiction which has been stated to be the attribute of every nation.' He divided these cases into three classes:

1. The exemption of the person of the sovereign from arrest or detention in a foreign country.

2. The immunity which all civilized nations allow to foreign ministers.

3. Where the sovereign allows the troops of a foreign prince to pass through his dominions.

In respect to this last class he observed: 'In such case, without any express declaration waiving jurisdiction over the army to which this right of passage has been granted, the sovereign who should attempt to exercise it would certainly be considered as violating his faith. By exercising it, the purpose for which the free passage was granted would be defeated, and a portion of the military force of a foreign independent nation would be diverted from those national objects and duties to which it was applicable, and would be withdrawn from the control of the sovereign whose power and whose safety might greatly depend on retaining the exclusive command and disposition of this force. The grant of a free passage, therefore, implies a waiver of all jurisdiction over the troops during their passage, and permits the foreign general to use that discipline, and to inflict those punishments which the government of his army may require.'

In this connection he held that there was a distinction between a military force which could only enter a foreign territory by permission of the sovereign, and a public armed vessel, which upon principles of international comity is entitled to enter the ports of any foreign country with which her own country is at peace. He further observed: 'If there be no prohibition, the ports of a friendly nation are considered as open to the public ships of all powers with whom it is at peace, and they are supposed to enter such ports, and to remain in them while allowed to remain under the protection of the government of the place.' It was upon this ground that the court held the Exchange exempt from seizure.

This case, however, only holds that the public armed vessels of a foreign nation may, upon principles of comity, enter our harbors with the presumed license of the government, and while there are exempt from the jurisdiction of the local courts; and, by parity of reasoning, that, if foreign troops are permitted to enter, or cross our territory, they are still subject to the control of their officers and exempt from local jurisdiction.

The case, however, is not authority for the proposition that, if the crews of such vessels, or the members of such military force, actually desert and scatter themselves through the country, their officers are, in the absence of treaty stipulation, authorized to call upon the local authorities for their reclamation. While we have no doubt that, under the case above cited, the foreign officer may exercise his accustomed authority for the maintenance of discipline, and perhaps arrest a deserter dum fervet opus, and to that extent this country waives its jurisdiction over the foreign crew or command, yet if a member of that crew actually escapes from the custody of his officers, he commits no crime against the local government, and it is a grave question whether the local courts can be called upon to enforce what is in reality the law of a foreign sovereign. The principle of comity may imply the surrender of jurisdiction over a foreign force within our territory, but it does not necessarily imply the assumption by our courts of a new jurisdiction, invoked by a foreign power, for the arrest of persons who have committed no offense against our laws, and are perhaps seeking to become citizens of our country. Our attention has been called to no such case. But, however this may be, there can be no doubt that the commissioner, in exercising the powers vested in him by Rev. Stat. § 5280, is limited to the arrest of seamen belonging to a country with whom we have a treaty upon that subject.

Instances are by no means rare where foreign troops have been permitted to enter or cross our territory, although in September, 1790, General Washington, on the advice of Mr. Adams, did refuse to permit British troops to march through the territory of the United States from Detroit to the Mississippi, apparently for the reason that the object of such movement was an attack on New Orleans and the Spanish possessions on the Mississippi. The government might well refuse the passage of foreign troops for the purpose of making an attack upon a power with which we were at peace.

In January, 1862, the Secretary of State gave permission to the British government to land a body of troops at Portland, and to transport them to Canada, the St. Lawrence being closed at that season of the year. The concession was the more significant from the fact that it occurred during our Civil War, when our relations with Great Britain were considerably strained, and the object was evidently to strengthen the British garrisons in Canada.

In 1875 permission was granted to the Governor General of Canada to transport through the territory of the United States certain supplies for the use of the Canadian mounted police force.

In 1876 the President permitted Mexico to land in Texas a small body of her troops, supposed to be intended to aid in the defense of Matamoras, with the proviso that the stay be not unnecessarily long, and that the Mexican government should be liable for any injury inflicted by these troops.

By a reciprocity of courtesy, permission was given in 1881 by the Governor General of Canada for the passage of a company of Buffalo militia, armed and equipped, over the Canada Southern Railway, from Buffalo to Detroit. These and other instances are collected by Dr. Wharton in his Digest of International Law, § 13.

Our attention is also called by counsel to the following instances:

At the Columbian celebration in 1893 marines from every foreign war vessel, except the Spanish, were allowed to land and did land and parade in the public streets of New York under the control of their various commanders.

On the occasion of the Deway parade, a regiment of Canadian troops was given permission to come into the United States and join in the procession.

This permission was granted as in the present case by the Secretary of the Treasury.

At the Buffalo Exposition, but recently closed, Mexican troops were allowed to go through the United States and be present at Buffalo, and remain there during the exposition.

In none of these cases, however, did a question arise with respect to the immunity of foreign troops from the territorial jurisdiction, or the power of their officers over them, or the right of the latter to call upon the local officers for the arrest of deserters. While no act of Congress authorizes the Executive Department to permit the introduction of foreign troops, the power to give such permission without legislative assent was probably assumed to exist from the authority of the President as commander-in-chief of the military and naval forces of the United States. It may be doubted, however, whether such power could be extended to the apprehension of deserters in the absence of positive legislation to that effect.

If the arrest of Alexandroff were wholly without authority of law, we should not feel it our duty to detain him and deliver him up to the custody of Captain Behr, notwithstanding we might be of opinion that he had unlawfully escaped from his custody. If Captain Behr by the escape of Alexandroff lost the right to call upon the local authorities for his arrest and surrender, he acquired no new right in that particular by the fact that he was illegally arrested and is still in custody. His detention upon the ground of comity could only be justified by the fact that his original arrest was legal, although if his arrest were authorized by law, the fact that such arrest was irregular might be condoned.

But whatever view might be taken of the question of delivering over foreign seamen in the absence of a treaty, we are of opinion that the treaty with Russia having contained a convention upon this subject, that convention must alone be looked to in determining the rights of the Russian authorities to the reclamation of the relator. Where the signatory powers have themselves fixed the terms upon which deserting seamen shall be surrendered, we have no right to enlarge those powers upon the principles of comity so as to embrace cases not contemplated by the treaty. Upon general principles applicable to the construction of written instruments, the enumeration of certain powers with respect to a particular subject-matter is a negation of all other analogous powers with respect to the same subject-matter. Ex parte McCardle, 7 Wall. 506, 19 L. ed. 264; Endlich, Interpretation of Statutes, §§ 397, 400. As observed by Lord Denman in Aspdin v. Austin, 5 Q. B. 671, 684, 'where parties have entered into written engagements with express stipulations, it is manifestly not desirable to extend them by any implications; the presumption is that, having expressed some, they have expressed all the conditions by which they intend to be bound under that instrument.' The rule is curtly stated in the familiar legal maxim, Expressio unius est exclusio alterius. In several recent cases in this court we have held that, where a statute gives a certain remedy for usurious interest paid, that remedy is exclusive, although in the absence of such a remedy the defense might be made by way of set-off or credit upon the original demand. Barnet v. ''Muncie Nat. Bank'', 98 U.S. 555, 25 L. ed. 212; Driesbach v. ''Second Nat. Bank'', 104 U.S. 52, 26 L. ed. 658; Stephens v. ''Monongahela Nat. Bank'', 111 U.S. 197, 28 L. ed. 399, 4 Sup. Ct. Rep. 336; Haseltine v. ''Central Nat. Bank, 183 U.S. 132, ante'', 50, 22 Sup. Ct. Rep. 50. See also King v. Sedgley, 2 Barn. & Ad. 65; Hare v. Horton, 5 Barn. & Ad. 715; Stafford v. Ingersol, 3 Hill, 38.

We think, then, that the rights of the parties must be determined by the treaty, but that this particular convention being operative upon both powers, and intended for their mutual protection, should be interpreted in a spirit of uberrima fides, and in a manner to carry out its manifest purpose. Taylor, International Law, § 383. As treaties are solemn engagements entered into between independent nations for the common advancement of their interests and the interests of civilization, and as their main object is, not only to avoid war and secure a lasting and perpetual peace, but to promote a friendly feeling between the people of the two countries, they should be interpreted in that broad and liberal spirit which is calculated to make for the existence of a perpetual amity, so far as it can be done without the sacrifice of individual rights or those principles of personal liberty which lie at the foundation of our jurisprudence. It is said by Chancellor Kent in his Commentaries, vol. 1, p. 174: 'Treaties of every kind. . . are to receive a fair and liberal interpretation according to the intention of the contracting parties, and to be kept with the most scrupulous good faith. Their meaning is to be ascertained by the same rules of construction and course of reasoning which we apply to the interpretation of private contracts.'

What, then, are the stipulations to which we must look for the solution of the question involved in this case? They are found in the 9th article of the treaty, which authorizes the arrest and surrender of 'deserters from the ships of war and merchant vessels of their country.' It is insisted, however, that this article is no proper foundation for the arrest of Alexandroff for three reasons: First, that the Variag was not a Russian ship of war; second, that Alexandroff was not a deserter from such ship; and, third, that his membership of such crew was not proved by the exhibition of registers of vessels, the rolls of the crew, or by other official documents. The case depends upon the answers to these questions.

1. At the time Alexandroff arrived in Philadelphia the Variag was still upon the stocks. Whatever be the proper construction of the word under the treaty, she was not then a ship in the ordinary sense of the term, but shortly thereafter and long before Alexandroff deserted, she was launched, and thereby became a ship in its legal sense. A ship is born when she is launched, and lives so long as her identity is preserved. Prior to her launching she is a mere congeries of wood and iron-an ordinary piece of personal property-as distinctly a land structure as a house, and subject only to mechanics' liens created by state law and enforceable in the state courts. In the baptism of launching she receives her name, and from the moment her keel touches the water she is transformed, and becomes a subject of admiralty jurisdiction. She acquires a personality of her own; becomes competent to contract, and is individually liable for her obligations, upon which she may sue in the name of her owner, and be sued in her own name. Her owner's agents may not be her agents, and her agents may not be her owner's agents. The China, 7 Wall. 53, ''sub. nom. The China v. Walsh'', 19 L. ed. 67; Thorp v. Hammond, 12 Wall. 408, 20 L. ed. 419; Workman v. New York City, 179 U.S. 552, 45 L. ed. 314, 21 Sup. Ct. Rep. 212; United States v. The Little Charles, 1 Brock, 347, 354, Fed. Cas. No. 15,612; The John G. Stevens, 170 U.S. 123, 125, 126, 42 L. ed. 973, 974, 18 Sup. Ct. Rep. 544; ''Homer Ramsdell Transp. Co. v. La Compagnie G en erale Transatlantique'', 182 U.S. 406, 45 L. ed. 1155, 21 Sup. Ct. Rep. 831. She is capable, too, of committing a tort, and is responsible in damages therefor. She may also become a quasi bankrupt; may be sold for the payment of her debts, and thereby receive a complete discharge from all prior liens, with liberty to begin a new life, contract further obligations, and perhaps be subjected to a second sale. We have had frequent occasion to notice the distinction between a vessel before and after she is launched. In People's Ferry Co. v. Beers, 20 How. 393, 15 L. ed. 961, it was held that the admiralty jurisdiction did not extend to cases where a lien was claimed for work done and materials used in the construction of a vessel; while the cases holding that for repairs or alterations, supplies or materials, furnished after she is launched, suit may be brought in a court of admiralty, are too numerous for citation.

So sharply is the line drawn between a vessel upon the stocks and a vessel in the water, that the former can never be made liable in admiralty, either in rem against herself or in personam against her owners, upon contracts or for torts, while if in taking the water during the process of launching, she escapes from the control of those about her, shoots across the stream and injures another vessel, she is liable to a suit in rem for damages. The Blenheim, 2 W. Rob. 421; The Vianna, Swabey, 405; The Andalusian, L. R. 2 Prob. Div. 231; The Glengarry, L. R. 2 Prob. Div. 235; The George Roper, L. R. 8 Prob. Div. 119; Baker v. Power, 14 Fed. 483.

Inasmuch as the Variag had been launched and was lying in the stream at the time of Alexandroff's desertion, we think she was a ship within the meaning of the treaty.

It requires no argument to show that if she were a ship of any description, she was a ship of war as distinguished from a merchant vessel. Article IX. of the treaty embraces deserters from both classes of vessels. She was clearly not a merchant vessel, and as clearly intended to be and was a ship of war, notwithstanding she had not received her armament. The contract with the Cramps under which she was built was entered into by the Russian Ministry of Marine, and provided for the construction by them for the Russian imperial government of 'a protected cruiser, built, equipped, armed and fitted,' etc. The appearance of a modern ship of war, too, is so wholly distinct from that of a merchant vessel that there could be no possibility of mistaking one for the other.

We are also of opinion that she was a Russian ship of war within the meaning of the treaty. The contract under which she was built, not only provided that she was to be built for the imperial Russian government, but should be constantly, during the continuance of the contract, inspected by a board of inspection appointed by the Russian Ministry of Marine, who should have full liberty to enter the premises of the contractors for such purpose; and that speed trials should be made by the contractors in the presence of such board of inspection. The 10th article of the contract reads as follows:

'Art. 10. The contractors agree that the vessel to be built, as aforesaid, whether finished or unfinished, and all steel, iron, timber, and other materials as may be required by the contractors, and be intended for the construction of the said ship, and which may be brought upon the premises of the contractors, shall immediately thereupon become, and be, the exclusive property of the Russian Ministry of Marine. The flag of the imperial Russian government shall be hoisted on the said ship whenever desired by the board of inspection, as evidence that the same is said government's exclusive property, and the Russian Ministry of Marine may at any time appoint an officer or officers to take actual possession of the said ship or materials, whether finished or unfinished, subject to the lien of the contractors for any portion of the value that may be unpaid.'

Such being her status with respect to her title and employment, can it be doubted that, if the contractors had seen fit to institute proceedings under the mechanic's lien law of the state for labor and materials furnished in her construction, or if a materialman had filed a libel in admiralty against her for coal furnished in testing her engines, or if upon her trial trip she had negligently come into collision with another vessel whose owner had instituted a suit against her, the Emperor of Russia might have claimed for her an immunity from local jurisdiction upon the ground that she was the property of a foreign sovereign? In making this defense it would necessarily appear that she was a public vessel; in other words, a ship of war, and upon that ground immune from suit or prosecution in the local courts. In the case of The Constitution, L. R. 4 Prob. Div. 39, an historical and venerable frigate of the United States, while returning home from the Paris Exposition with a cargo of American exhibits belonging to private parties, was stranded on the south coast of England and received salvage services from an English tug. It was held by the English court of admiralty that no warrant for her arrest could issue, either in respect of ship or cargo. In The Parlement Belge, L. R. 4 Prob. Div. 129, a vessel belonging to the King of the Belgians, manned by officers and men commissioned and paid by him, and regularly employed for the purposes of carrying mails, passengers, and cargo, was held by the British court of admiralty not to be entitled to the privileges of a man-of-war as to extraterritoriality, and that she was liable to proceedings in rem at the suit of the owner of a vessel injured by her in collision. The decision, however, was reversed by the court of appeals, upon the ground that the exercise of such jurisdiction was incompatible with the absolute independence of the sovereign of every superior authority, and that the property as well as the person of the sovereign was exempt from suit. This general question is too well settled to admit of doubt.

It is true there was a provision that the Variag might be rejected either for deficient speed or for excessive draft, and that she should be during her construction at the risk of the contractors, until she had been actually accepted by the imperial Russian government, or they had taken actual possession of her. This, however, did not prevent the property passing to the Russian government as stipulated by article X. of the contract, though with a provision for an ultimate rescission. True, the Russian flag had never been hoisted upon the vessel, but that was immaterial, as the government had not finally accepted or taken possession of her.

Mr. Hall, in his treatise upon International Law, discussing foreign ships as nonterritorial property of a state (§ 44), says that the commission under which a commander acts is conclusive of the public character of a vessel, although such character is usually evidenced by the flag and pendant which she carries, and, if necessary, by firing a gun. 'When in the absence of, or notwithstanding, these proofs, any doubt is entertained as to the legitimateness of her claim, the statement of the commander on his word of honor that the vessel is public is often accepted, but the admission of such statements as proof is a matter of courtesy,' and 'though attestation by a government that a ship belongs to it is final, it does not follaw that denial of public character is equally final; assumption and repudiation of responsibility stand upon a different footing.' It is true he says that the immunities of a vessel of war belong to her as a complete instrument, made up of vessel and crew, and intended to be used by the state for specific purposes; the elements of which she is composed not being capable of separate use for these purposes, and consequently are not exempted from the local jurisdiction. But it is pertinent to notice here that he is speaking of immunities of public vessels from local jurisdiction, and not of the property of a foreign government in such vessels. See also Taylor, International Law, §§ 253, 254, 261. There can be no doubt that the Variag, in the condition in which she was at the time Alexandroff deserted, was a subject of local jurisdiction, and that if any crime had been committed on board of her, such crime would have been cognizable in the local courts, although it would have been otherwise had the Russian government taken possession, put a crew on board of her, and commissioned her for active service. This, however, does not touch the question whether she was not a ship of war within the letter and spirit of the treaty of 1832.

2. Was Alexandroff a deserter from a Russian ship of war within the meaning of the treaty, or was he merely a deserter from the Russian naval service, a fact which of itself would not be sufficient to authorize his arrest under article IX. of the treaty? To be a deserter from a particular ship he must have been a member of the crew of such ship, and bound to remain in its service until discharged. It is earnestly insisted that, although he had been detailed to serve thereafter as a member of the crew of the Variag, her crew had never been organized as such, that the detail was merely preliminary to such organization, and that Alexandroff had never set foot upon the vessel. This argument necessarily presupposes that seamen do not become a 'crew' until they have actually gone on board the vessel, and entered upon the performance of their duties. We cannot acquiesce in this position. The more reasonable view is that seamen become obligated to merchant vessels from the time they sign the shipping articles, and from that time they may incur the penalties of desertion.

So early as the marine ordinances of Louis XIV.-the foundation of all maritime Codes-the service of the seaman was treated as beginning from the moment when the contract for such service was entered into. By title 3, article 3, of this ordinance, 'if a seaman leaves a master, without a discharge in writing, before the voyage is begun, he may be taken up and imprisoned wherever he can be found,' etc. The present Commercial Code of France makes no express provision upon the subject, but by the general mercantile law of Germany, art. 532, the master can cause any seaman who, after having been engaged, neglects to enter upon or continues to do his duties, to be forcibly compelled to perform the same.' By the Dutch Code, art. 402, 'the master, or his representative, can call in the public force against those who refuse to come on board, who absent themselves from the ship without leave, and refuse to perform to the end of the service for which they were engaged.'

The rule is the same in England. By § 243 of the merchants' shipping act of 1854 (17 & 18 Vict. chap. 104), 'Whenever any seaman who has been lawfully engaged, or any apprentice to the sea service, commits any of the following offenses, he shall be liable to be punished summarily, as follows (that is to say):. . . 2. For neglecting or refusing, without reasonable cause, to join his ship, or to proceed to sea in his ship, or for absence without leave at any time within twenty-four hours of the ship's sailing from any port, either at the commencement or during the progress of any voyage,. . . he shall be liable to imprisonment,' etc. And by § 246, 'Whenever, either at the commencement or during the progress of any voyage, any seaman or apprentice neglects or refuses to join, or deserts from or refuses to proceed to sea in any ship in which he is duly engaged to serve,' the master may call upon the local police officers or constables to apprehend him. These provisions have been substantially carried into the new merchants' shipping act. 57 & 58 Vict. chap. 60, § 221.

Congress, however, has so often spoken upon this subject that we think it can hardly be open to doubt. By Rev. Stat. § 4522, as amended in 1898 (30 Stat. at .l. 755, chap. 28), regulating seamen engaged in interstate commerce, there is a provision that 'at the foot of every such contract to ship upon such a vessel. . . there shall be a memorandum in writing of the day and the hour when such seaman who shipped and subscribed shall render himself on board to begin the voyage agreed upon. If any seaman shall neglect to render himself on board the vessel for which he has shipped at the time mentioned in such memorandum,' and if the master shall make a proper entry in the log book, 'then every such seaman shall forfeit for every hour which he shall so neglect to render himself one half of one day's pay.' The rights of the seaman in this connection are protected by § 4527, which declares that 'any seaman who has signed an agreement, and is afterward discharged before the commencement of the voyage or before one month's wages are earned,' shall be entitled to compensation. By § 4558, as amended (30 Stat. at L. 757, chap. 28), 'if, after judgment that such vessel is fit to proceed on her intended voyage,. . . the seamen, or either of them, shall refuse to proceed on the voyage, he shall forfeit any wages that may be due him.' Section 4596 is largely a reproduction of the section above cited from the merchants' shipping act, and provides that 'whenever any seaman who has been lawfully engaged. . . commits any of the following offenses, he shall be punishable as follows:. . . Second. For neglecting and refusing, without reasonable cause, to join his vessel or to proceed to sea in his vessel, or for absence without leave at any time within twenty-four hours of the vessel sailing from any port, either at the commencement or during the progress of any voyage,' he shall forfeit his wages. By § 4599, 'Whenever, either at the commencement of or during any voyage, any seaman or apprentice neglects or refuses to join, or deserts from or refuses to proceed to sea in, any vessel in which he is duly engaged to serve,' the master may [in accordance with the English practice] apply for the local assistance of police officers or constables for his arrest and detention. It is true this section has been repealed, together with all other provisions authorizing the arrest and surrender to the vessel of seamen of domestic vessels deserting in this country. But throughout all this legislation there is a recognition of the principle that the obligation of the seaman begins with the signing of the shipping articles, and that he is liable to the penalty of a forfeiture of his wages from that moment.

Upon these authorities we are of opinion that, as applied to merchant vessels, the crews are organized and the service of each sailor begins with the signing of the shipping articles, and that the lien of the seaman upon the ship for his wages, and reciprocally the lien of the ship upon the seaman for his services, where such lien still exists, dates from that time. The difficulty of securing a crew would be greatly enhanced if, after signing the articles and perhaps drawing advance pay, seamen were at liberty to desert before rendering themselves on board.

The Variag being a ship of war, there was no signing of shipping articles, as required in the merchant service, since the seamen were enlisted or conscribed to serve where ordered. But there was a practical equivalent for the shipping articles in the detail of Alexandron to this vessel. He entered the Russian naval service in 1896, and his term of service had not expired. He was, of course, subject to the orders of his officers, and was sent as a member of a force of one officer and fifty-three men ordered to take possession of the Variag as soon as she was completed. From the moment of such assignment and until relieved therefrom, he was as much bound to the service of the Variag, and a member of her crew, as if he had signed shipping articles. We express no opinion as to whether, if the Variag had not been launched when he deserted, he could be held as a member of her crew, but when she took the water and became a ship she was competent to receive a crew, and a detail to her service took effect. It will scarcely be disputed that, if the Variag had been in commission and this body of men had gone on board the vessel and rendered some slight service as seamen, and had subsequently gone ashore to remain until she was ready for her final departure from Philadelphia, they would be regarded as a component part of her crew; but this differs in form rather than in substance from what actually took place. The men were in Philadelphia in custody of Captain Behr, and ready to go on board at a moment's notice. They were as much subject to his orders as if they had remained on board the Variag; and as much so as if she had been a regularly commissioned vessel of the Russian navy, which had put into Philadelphia for repairs and sent her crew ashore as the most convenient method of disposing of them while such repairs were being made.

We do not regard it as material that the Variag had not yet been commissioned as a member of the Russian navy. The mere commissioning of a ship does not make her a ship of war, but merely indicates that she is assigned to active service. A merchant vessel, built for the purpose of trade and commerce, is a merchant vessel, though she may not yet have received her register-a formality only necessary to entitle her to the privileges of an American vessel. To hold that the treaty applies only to commissioned vessels of war is to introduce into it a new element and to rob it of a valuable feature. Under the contract with the builders she was clearly Russian property, and while ownership is not always proof of nationality, since a vessel may be owned in one country and registered in another, where the facts are undisputed, and there was no pretense she was an American vessel, her Russian nationality follows as a matter of course. If she went out of commission and her armament were taken out of her for a temporary purpose, she would nevertheless be a ship of war of the Russian navy. Being, as we have already held, a ship, she must be either a ship of war or merchant vessel, and as she was clearly not a merchant vessel, the only other alternative applies. The treaty should be liberally interpreted in this particular to carry out the intent of the parties, since if a foreign government may not send details of men to take possession of vessels built here, without danger of losing their entire command by desertion, we must either cease building them or foreign governments must send special ships of their own with crews ordered to take possession of them. It is true that possession of the Variag had not yet been delivered, but the title had passed, and the very fact that the Russian government had datailed a crew to take possession of her indicated that it regarded her as a constituent part of the Russian navy. It is unnecessary to consider whether, if the Variag had been rejected, her crew would have been eo instanti at liberty to leave the Russian service and acquire a citizenship here. That probably would have involved the other question, whether they could be treated as a military force entering this country with the permission of the Executive and remaining subject to the orders of their officers.

Holding, as we do, that the rights of the parties must be determined by the treaty, the manner in which this body of men entered the country does not seem to be material, so long as it appears that they were detailed as part of the crew of the Variag. If they were not here as a military force, which had landed with the permission of the government, they were lawfully here as individual seamen directed to take possession of the Variag, and the purpose of their coming was of no moment to the authorities. It appears, however-and it is not improper to allude to it here-that, as the Variag approached her completion, the naval agent of the Russian Embassy to the United States addressed a letter to the Secretary of the Treasury, requesting that the necessary orders be given for allowing 'admittance to the United States, through the port of New York, without examination, the detail of one officer and fifty-three regular sailors, imperial Russian navy, detailed to this country for the purpose of partly manning the cruiser,' etc. In reply, the acting Secretary of the Treasury issued instructions to the Commission of Immigration to admit the detail without examination for the purposes named, and to remit the usual head tax of $1.

3. The only remaining question is whether there was a compliance with article IX. of the treaty, that the vice-consul 'shall in writing demand said deserters, proving, by the exhibition of the registers of the vessels, the rolls of the crews, or by other official documents, that such individuals formed part of the crews; and this reclamation being thus substantiated, the surrender shall not be refused.' We have no doubt this provision is obligatory, and that the vice-consul must show either that it was complied with or that a compliance was waived. We are not informed by the record what evidence was laid before the commissioner upon this subject. Alexandroff himself, however, swears that he entered the naval service in 1896 as an assistant physician; that he arrived in the United States October 14, 1899; that he never asked to become a member of the crew, but was simply sent to the United States and lived with the crew of the Russian ship, received his equipment, support, and wages; that he left the crew on April 20, 1900, went to New York, declared his intention to become a citizen, and obtained employment. On cross-examination he stated that a subject is not required to sign any enlistment or anything of that kind, but is simply sent into the service. After the oral testimony had been introduced, the Russian vice-consul, to further sustain his case, made the following offer:

'Mr. Adler: I also have here the Russian officer who accompanied these fifty-three sailors to this country, together with the other members of the crew, who has with him the passport issued by his government entitled these men to come here. I understand it is admitted by the other side that this defendant did come here as a portion of the crew of this cruiser, and the passport so states. If that is admitted, I presume it is not necessary to offer the passport in evidence. If your honor cares to have it, I will produce this officer with the passport and offer it. It merely shows that this defendant, with fifty-two other members of a company in the Russian navy, were admitted to free passage here to become members of the crew of the cruiser Variag, and that he came here in pursuance of that passport accompanied by this officer.

'Mr. Hassler: I should object to the officer, not so much on account of what is in the passport, but my friend made a statement which I do not think is exactly accurate, as to what we stated. We stated this man came here with a company of men, but we do not state that he came here as part of the crew of the Variag.

'The Court: He came here as a member of the Russian navy, ordered here to become one of the crew of the cruiser Variag, and he came for that express purpose.

Mr. Hassler: We concede that.'

There was there a clear waiver of the production of the passport and an admission that Alexandroff came to this country as a member of the Russian navy, was ordered here to become one of the crew of the Variag, and came for that express purpose. Under such circumstances, it does not lie in the mouth of the relator to insist that no official documents were produced, since the passport and the admission accompanying its offer show that Alexandroff came here as a member of the proposed crew of the Variag (and we have discussed the case upon that assumption)-the question being whether under those circumstances he ought to be treated as a deserter from a Russian ship of war.

We are of opinion that his case is within the treaty, and the judgments of both courts below are therefore reversed, and the case remanded to the District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.

Mr. Justice Peckham concurred in the opinion, but also thought that the men, among whom was the respondent, came into the country with the expressed permission of the Executive as a part of the Russian navy and as members of the crew of the steamship awaiting completion as a man-of-war; and the Russian government was therefore, upon the principle of comity, entitled to the aid of the government of the United States to accomplish the arrest and detention of a deserter from the ranks of those men it had thus expressly authorized to come in.

Mr. Justice Gray, with whom concurred Mr. Chief Justice Fuller and Justices Harlan and White, dissenting: