The Influence of Sea Power upon History

Chapter I: Discussion of the Elements of Sea Power.

 * History of Sea Power one of contest between nations, therefore largely military
 * Permanence of the teachings of history
 * Unsettled condition of modern naval opinion
 * Contrasts between historical classes of war-ships
 * Essential distinction between weather and lee gage
 * Analogous to other offensive and defensive positions
 * Consequent effect upon naval policy
 * Lessons of history apply especially to strategy
 * Less obviously to tactics, but still applicable
 * Naval strategic combinations surer now than formerly
 * Wide scope of naval strategy

Chapter II: State of Europe in 1660. Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665-1667. Sea Battles of Lowestoft and of the Four Days.

 * The sea a great common
 * Advantages of water-carriage over that by land
 * Navies exist for the protection of commerce
 * Dependence of commerce upon secure seaports
 * Development of colonies and colonial posts
 * Links in the chain of Sea Power: production, shipping, colonies
 * General conditions affecting Sea Power:
 * I. Geographical position
 * II. Physical conformation
 * III. Extent of territory
 * IV. Number of population
 * V. National character
 * VI. Character and policy of governments
 * England
 * Holland
 * France
 * Influence of colonies on Sea Power
 * The United States:
 * Its weakness in Sea Power
 * Its chief interest in internal development
 * Danger from blockades
 * Dependence of the navy upon the shipping interest
 * Conclusion of the discussion of the elements of Sea Power
 * Purpose of the historical narrative

====Chapter III: War of England and France in Alliance Against the United Provinces, 1672-1674.--Finally, of France Against Combined Europe, 1674-1678.--Sea Battles of Solebay, the Texel, and Stromboli.====
 * Accession of Charles II. and Louis XIV
 * Followed shortly by general wars
 * French policy formulated by Henry IV. and Richelieu
 * Condition of France in 1660
 * Condition of Spain
 * Condition of the Dutch United Provinces
 * Their commerce and colonies
 * Character of their government
 * Parties in the State
 * Condition of England in 1660
 * Characteristics of French, English, and Dutch ships
 * Conditions of other European States
 * Louis XIV. The leading personality in Europe
 * His policy
 * Colbert's administrative acts
 * Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665
 * Battle of Lowestoft, 1665
 * Fire-ships, compared with torpedo-cruisers
 * The group formation
 * The order of battle for sailing-ships
 * The Four Days' Battle, 1666
 * Military merits of the opposing fleets
 * Soldiers commanding fleets, discussion
 * Ruyter in the Thames, 1667
 * Peace of Breda, 1667
 * Military value of commerce-destroying

Chapter IV: English Revolution. War of the League of Augsburg, 1688-1697. Sea Battles of Beachy Head and La Hougue.

 * Aggressions of Louis XIV. on Spanish Netherlands
 * Policy of the United Provinces
 * Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden
 * Anger of Louis XIV
 * Leibnitz proposes to Louis to seize Egypt
 * His memorial
 * Bargaining between Louis XIV. and Charles II.
 * The two kings declare war against the United Provinces
 * Military character of this war
 * Naval strategy of the Dutch
 * Tactical combinations of De Ruyter
 * Inefficiency of Dutch naval administration
 * Battle of Solebay, 1672
 * Tactical comments
 * Effect of the battle on the course of the war
 * Land campaign of the French in Holland
 * Murder of John De Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland
 * Accession to power of William of Orange
 * Uneasiness among European States
 * Naval battles off Schoneveldt, 1673
 * Naval battle of the Texel, 1673
 * Effect upon the general war
 * Equivocal action of the French fleet
 * General ineffectiveness of maritime coalitions
 * Military character of De Ruyter
 * Coalition against France
 * Peace between England and the United Provinces
 * Sicilian revolt against Spain
 * Battle of Stromboli, 1676
 * Illustration of Clerk's naval tactics
 * De Ruyter killed off Agosta
 * England becomes hostile to France
 * Sufferings of the United Provinces
 * Peace of Nimeguen, 1678
 * Effects of the war on France and Holland
 * Notice of Comte D'Estrees

Chapter V: War of the Spanish Succession, 1702-1713. Sea Battle of Malaga.

 * Failure of the Spanish line of the House of Austria
 * King of Spain wills the succession to the Duke of Anjou
 * Death of the King of Spain
 * Louis XIV. accepts the bequests
 * He seizes towns in Spanish Netherlands
 * Offensive alliance between England, Holland, and Austria
 * Declarations of war
 * The allies proclaim Carlos III. King of Spain
 * Affair of the Vigo galleons
 * Portugal joins the allies
 * Character of the naval warfare
 * Capture of Gibraltar by the English
 * Naval battle of Malaga, 1704
 * Decay of the French navy
 * Progress of the land war
 * Allies seize Sardinia and Minorca
 * Disgrace of Marlborough
 * England offers terms of peace
 * Peace of Utrecht, 1713
 * Terms of the peace
 * Results of the war to the different belligerents
 * Commanding position of Great Britain
 * Sea Power dependent upon both commerce and naval strength
 * Peculiar position of France as regards Sea Power
 * Depressed condition of France
 * Commercial prosperity of England
 * Ineffectiveness of commerce-destroying
 * Duguay-Trouin's expedition against Rio de Janeiro, 1711
 * War between Russia and Sweden

====Chapter VI: The Regency in France. Alberoni in Spain.  Policies of Walpole and Fleuri.  War of the Polish Succession.  English Contraband Trade in Spanish America.  Great Britain Declares War Against Spain, 1715-1739.====
 * Death of Queen Anne and Louis XIV
 * Accession of George I
 * Regency of Philip of Orleans
 * Administration of Alberoni in Spain
 * Spaniards invade Sardinia
 * Alliance of Austria, England, Holland, and France
 * Spaniards invade Sicily
 * Destruction of Spanish navy off Cape Passaro, 1718
 * Failure and dismissal of Alberoni
 * Spain accepts terms
 * Great Britain interferes in the Baltic
 * Death of Philip of Orleans
 * Administration of Fleuri in France
 * Growth of French commerce
 * France in the East Indies
 * Troubles between England and Spain
 * English contraband trade in Spanish America
 * Illegal search of English ships
 * Walpole's struggles to preserve peace
 * War of the Polish Succession
 * Creation of the Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies
 * Bourbon family compact
 * France acquires Bar and Lorraine
 * England declares war against Spain
 * Morality of the English action toward Spain
 * Decay of the French navy
 * Death of Walpole and of Fleuri

====Chapter VII: War Between Great Britain and Spain, 1739. War of the Austrian Succession, 1740.  France Joins Spain Against Great Britain, 1744.  Sea Battles of Matthews, Anson, and Hawke.  Peace of Aix-La-Chapelle, 1748.====
 * Characteristics of the wars from 1739 to 1783
 * Neglect of the navy by French government
 * Colonial possessions of the French, English, and Spaniards
 * Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in India
 * Condition of the contending navies
 * Expeditions of Vernon and Anson
 * Outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession
 * England allies herself to Austria
 * Naval affairs in the Mediterranean
 * Influence of Sea Power on the war
 * Naval battle off Toulon, 1744
 * Causes of English failure
 * Courts-martial following the action
 * Inefficient action of English navy
 * Capture of Louisburg by New England colonists, 1745
 * Causes which concurred to neutralize England's Sea Power
 * France overruns Belgium and invades Holland
 * Naval actions of Anson and Hawke
 * Brilliant defence of Commodore l'Etenduere
 * Projects of Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in the East Indies
 * Influence of Sea Power in Indian affairs
 * La Bourdonnais reduces Madras
 * Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748
 * Madras exchanged for Louisburg
 * Results of the war
 * Effect of Sea Power on the issue

====Chapter VIII: Seven Years' War, 1756-1763. England's Overwhelming Power and Conquests on the Seas, in North America, Europe, and East and West Indies.  Sea Battles: Byng off Minorca; Hawke and Conflans; Pocock and D'Ache in East Indies.====
 * Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle leaves many questions unsettled
 * Dupleix pursues his aggressive policy
 * He is recalled from India
 * His policy abandoned by the French
 * Agitation in North America
 * Braddock's expedition, 1755
 * Seizure of French ships by the English, while at peace
 * French expedition against Port Mahon, 1756
 * Byng sails to relieve the place
 * Byng's action off Port Mahon, 1756
 * Characteristics of the French naval policy
 * Byng returns to Gibraltar
 * He is relieved, tried by court-martial, and shot
 * Formal declarations of war by England and France
 * England's appreciation of the maritime character of the war
 * France is drawn into a continental struggle
 * The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) begins
 * Pitt becomes Prime Minister of England
 * Operations in North America
 * Fall of Louisburg, 1758
 * Fall of Quebec, 1759, and of Montreal, 1760
 * Influence of Sea Power on the continental war
 * English plans for the general naval operations
 * Choiseul becomes Minister in France
 * He plans an invasion of England
 * Sailing of the Toulon fleet, 1759
 * Its disastrous encounter with Boscawen
 * Consequent frustration of the invasion of England
 * Project to invade Scotland
 * Sailing of the Brest fleet
 * Hawke falls in with it and disperses it, 1759
 * Accession of Charles III. To Spanish throne
 * Death of George II
 * Clive in India
 * Battle of Plassey, 1757
 * Decisive influence of Sea Power upon the issues in India
 * Naval actions between Pocock and D'Ache', 1758, 1759
 * Destitute condition of French naval stations in India
 * The French fleet abandons the struggle
 * Final fall of the French power in India
 * Ruined condition of the French navy
 * Alliance between France and Spain
 * England declares war against Spain
 * Rapid conquest of French and Spanish colonies
 * French and Spaniards invade Portugal
 * The invasion repelled by England
 * Severe reverses of the Spaniards in all quarters
 * Spain sues for peace
 * Losses of British mercantile shipping
 * Increase of British commerce
 * Commanding position of Great Britain
 * Relations of England and Portugal
 * Terms of the Treaty of Paris
 * Opposition to the treaty in Great Britain
 * Results of the maritime war
 * Results of the continental war
 * Influence of Sea Power in countries politically unstable
 * Interest of the United States in the Central American Isthmus
 * Effects of the Seven Years' War on the later history of Great Britain
 * Subsequent acquisitions of Great Britain
 * British success due to maritime superiority
 * Mutual dependence of seaports and fleets

Chapter IX: Course of Events from the Peace of Paris to 1778. Maritime War Consequent upon the American Revolution. Battle off Ushant.

 * French discontent with the Treaty of Paris
 * Revival of the French navy
 * Discipline among French naval officers of the time
 * Choiseul's foreign policy
 * Domestic troubles in Great Britain
 * Controversies with the North American colonies
 * Genoa cedes Corsica to France
 * Dispute between England and Spain about the Falkland Islands
 * Choiseul dismissed
 * Death of Louis XV
 * Naval policy of Louis XVI
 * Characteristics of the maritime war of 1778
 * Instructions of Louis XVI. To the French admirals
 * Strength of English navy
 * Characteristics of the military situation in America
 * The line of the Hudson
 * Burgoyne's expedition from Canada
 * Howe carries his army from New York to the Chesapeake
 * Surrender of Burgoyne, 1777
 * American privateering
 * Clandestine support of the Americans by France
 * Treaty between France and the Americans
 * Vital importance of the French fleet to the Americans
 * The military situation in the different quarters of the globe
 * Breach between France and England
 * Sailing of the British and French fleets
 * Battle of Ushant, 1778
 * Position of a naval commander-in-chief in battle

Chapter X: Maritime War in North America and West Indies, 1778-1781. Its Influence upon the Course of the American Revolution. Fleet Actions off Grenada, Dominica, and Chesapeake Bay.

 * D'Estaing sails from Toulon for Delaware Bay, 1778
 * British ordered to evacuate Philadelphia
 * Rapidity of Lord Howe's movements
 * D'Estaing arrives too late
 * Follows Howe to New York
 * Fails to attack there and sails for Newport
 * Howe follows him there
 * Both fleets dispersed by a storm
 * D'Estaing takes his fleet to Boston
 * Howe's activity foils D'Estaing at all points
 * D'Estaing sails for the West Indies
 * The English seize Sta. Lucia
 * Ineffectual attempts of D'Estaing to dislodge them
 * D'Estaing captures Grenada
 * Naval battle of Grenada, 1779; English ships crippled
 * D'Estaing fails to improve his advantages
 * Reasons for his neglect
 * French naval policy
 * English operations in the Southern States
 * D'Estaing takes his fleet to Savannah
 * His fruitless assault on Savannah
 * D'Estaing returns to France
 * Fall of Charleston
 * De Guichen takes command in the West Indies
 * Rodney arrives to command English fleet
 * His military character
 * First action between Rodney and De Guichen, 1780
 * Breaking the line
 * Subsequent movements of Rodney and De Guichen
 * Rodney divides his fleet
 * Goes in person to New York
 * De Guichen returns to France
 * Arrival of French forces in Newport
 * Rodney returns to the West Indies
 * War between England and Holland
 * Disasters to the United States in 1780
 * De Grasse sails from Brest for the West Indies, 1781
 * Engagement with English fleet off Martinique.
 * Cornwallis overruns the Southern States
 * He retires upon Wilmington, N. C., and thence to Virginia
 * Arnold on the James River
 * The French fleet leaves Newport to intercept Arnold
 * Meets the English fleet off the Chesapeake, 1781
 * French fleet returns to Newport
 * Cornwallis occupies Yorktown
 * De Grasse sails from Hayti for the Chesapeake
 * Action with the British fleet, 1781
 * Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781
 * Criticism of the British naval operations
 * Energy and address shown by De Grasse
 * Difficulties of Great Britain's position in the war of 1778.
 * The military policy best fitted to cope with them
 * Position of the French squadron in Newport, R. I., 1780.
 * Great Britain's defensive position and inferior numbers.
 * Consequent necessity for a vigorous initiative
 * Washington's opinions as to the influence of Sea Power on the American contest

Chapter XI: Maritime War in Europe, 1779-1782.

 * Objectives of the allied operations in Europe
 * Spain declares war against England
 * Allied fleets enter the English Channel, 1779
 * Abortive issue of the cruise
 * Rodney sails with supplies for Gibraltar
 * Defeats the Spanish squadron of Langara and relieves the place
 * The allies capture a great British convoy
 * The armed neutrality of the Baltic powers, 1780
 * England declares war against Holland
 * Gibraltar is revictualled by Admiral Derby
 * The allied fleets again in the Channel, 1781
 * They retire without effecting any damage to England
 * Destruction of a French convoy for the West Indies
 * Fall of Port Mahon, 1782
 * The allied fleets assemble at Algesiras
 * Grand attack of the allies on Gibraltar, which fails, 1782
 * Lord Howe succeeds in revictualling Gibraltar
 * Action between his fleet and that of the allies
 * Conduct of the war of 1778 by the English government
 * Influence of Sea Power
 * Proper use of the naval force

Chapter XII: Events in the East Indies, 1778-1781. Suffren Sails from Brest for India, 1781. His Brilliant Naval Campaign in the Indian Seas, 1782, 1783.

 * Neglect of India by the French government
 * England at war with Mysore and with the Mahrattas
 * Arrival of the French squadron under Comte d'Orves
 * It effects nothing and returns to the Isle of France
 * Suffren sails from Brest with five ships-of-the-line, 1781
 * Attacks an English squadron in the Cape Verde Islands, 1781
 * Conduct and results of this attack
 * Distinguishing merits of Suffren as a naval leader
 * Suffren saves the Cape Colony from the English
 * He reaches the Isle of France
 * Succeeds to the chief command of the French fleet
 * Meets the British squadron under Hughes at Madras
 * Analysis of the naval strategic situation in India
 * The first battle between Suffren and Hughes, Feb. 17, 1782
 * Suffren's views of the naval situation in India
 * Tactical oversights made by Suffren
 * Inadequate support received by him from his captains
 * Suffren goes to Pondicherry, Hughes to Trincomalee
 * The second battle between Suffren and Hughes, April 12, 1782
 * Suffren's tactics in the action
 * Relative injuries received by the opposing fleets
 * Contemporaneous English criticisms upon Hughes's conduct
 * Destitute condition of Suffren's fleet
 * His activity and success in supplying wants
 * He communicates with Hyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore
 * Firmness and insight shown by Suffren
 * His refusal to obey orders from home to leave the Indian Coast
 * The third battle between Suffren and Hughes, July 6, 1782
 * Qualities shown by Hughes
 * Stubborn fighting by the British admiral and captains
 * Suffren deprives three captains of their commands
 * Dilatory conduct of Admiral Hughes
 * Suffren attacks and takes Trincomalee
 * Strategic importance of this success
 * Comparative condition of the two fleets in material for repairs
 * The English government despatches powerful reinforcements
 * The French court fails to support Suffren
 * The fourth battle between Suffren and Hughes, Sept. 3, 1782
 * Mismanagement and injuries of the French
 * Contrast between the captains in the opposing fleets
 * Two ships of Suffren's fleet grounded and lost
 * Arrival of British reinforcements under Admiral Bickerton
 * Approach of bad-weather season; Hughes goes to Bombay
 * Military situation of French and English in India
 * Delays of the French reinforcements under Bussy
 * Suffren takes his fleet to Achem, in Sumatra
 * He returns to the Indian coast
 * Arrival of Bussy
 * Decline of the French power on shore
 * The English besiege Bussy in Cuddalore by land and sea
 * Suffren relieves the place
 * The fifth battle between Suffren and Hughes, June 20, 1783
 * Decisive character of Suffren's action
 * News of the peace received at Madras
 * Suffren sails for France
 * His flattering reception everywhere
 * His distinguishing military qualities
 * His later career and death

Chapter XIII: Events in the West Indies after the Surrender of Yorktown. Encounters of De Grasse with Hood. The Sea Battle of the Saints.  1781-1782.

 * Maritime struggle transferred from the continent to West Indies
 * De Grasse sails for the islands
 * French expedition against the island of St. Christopher, January, 1782
 * Hood attempts to relieve the garrison
 * Manoeuvres of the two fleets
 * Action between De Grasse and Hood
 * Hood seizes the anchorage left by De Grasse
 * De Grasse attacks Hood at his anchorage
 * Hood maintains his position
 * Surrender of the garrison and island
 * Merits of Hood's action
 * Criticism upon De Grasse's conduct
 * Rodney arrives in West Indies from England
 * Junction of Rodney and Hood at Antigua
 * De Grasse returns to Martinique
 * Allied plans to capture Jamaica
 * Rodney takes his station at Sta. Lucia
 * The French fleet sails and is pursued by Rodney
 * Action of April 9, 1782
 * Criticism upon the action
 * The chase continued; accidents to French ships
 * The naval battle of the Saints, April 12, 1782
 * Rodney breaks the French line
 * Capture of the French commander-in-chief and five ships-of-the-line
 * Details of the action
 * Analysis of the effects of Rodney's manoeuvre
 * Tactical bearing of improvements in naval equipment
 * Lessons of this short naval campaign
 * Rodney's failure to pursue the French fleet
 * Examination of his reasons and of the actual conditions
 * Probable effect of this failure upon the conditions of peace
 * Rodney's opinions upon the battle of April 12
 * Successes achieved by Rodney during his command
 * He is recalled by a new ministry
 * Exaggerated view of the effects of this battle upon the war
 * Subsequent career of De Grasse
 * Court-martial ordered upon the officers of the French fleet
 * Findings of the court
 * De Grasse appeals against the finding
 * He is severely rebuked by the king
 * Deaths of De Grasse, Rodney, and Hood

Chapter XIV: Critical Discussion of the Maritime War of 1778.

 * The war of 1778 purely maritime
 * Peculiar interest therefore attaching to it
 * Successive steps in the critical study of a war
 * Distinction between "object" and "objective"
 * Parties to the war of 1778
 * Objects of the different belligerents
 * Foundations of the British Empire of the seas
 * Threatened by the revolt of the colonies
 * The British fleet inferior in numbers to the allies
 * Choice of objectives
 * The fleets indicated as the keys of the situation everywhere
 * Elements essential to an active naval war
 * The bases of operations in the war of 1778
 *  In Europe
 *  On the American continent
 *  In the West Indies
 *  In the East Indies
 * Strategic bearing of the trade-winds and monsoons
 * The bases abroad generally deficient in resources
 * Consequent increased importance of the communications
 * The navies the guardians of the communications
 * Need of intermediate ports between Europe and India
 * Inquiry into the disposition of the naval forces
 * Difficulty of obtaining information at sea
 * Perplexity as to the destination of a naval expedition
 * Disadvantages of the defensive
 * England upon the defensive in 1778
 * Consequent necessity for wise and vigorous action
 * The key of the situation
 * British naval policy in the Napoleonic wars
 * British naval policy in the Seven Years' War
 * Difficulties attending this policy
 * Disposition of the British navy in the war of 1778
 * Resulting inferiority on many critical occasions
 * Effect oil the navy of the failure to fortify naval bases
 * The distribution of the British navy exposes it to being out-numbered at many points
 * The British naval policy in 1778 and in other wars compared
 * Naval policy of the allies
 * Dives-gent counsels of the coalition
 * "Ulterior objects"
 * The allied navies systematically assume a defensive attitude
 * Dangers of this line of action
 * Glamour of commerce-destroying
 * The conditions of peace, 1783