The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Friends, The Religious Society of

FRIENDS, The Religious Society of. The Religious Society of Friends, commonly called Quakers, had its origin in England about the middle of the 17th century, and was largely the result of the ministry of George Fox, who is often called its founder.

Early History. — George Fox, the son of a weaver, was born at Drayton, in Leicestershire, 1624, and began his public preaching about the year 1648. His spiritual views and practical application of Christian doctrines met a ready response in many pious persons (both Churchmen and Dissenters), and bitter opposition from others whose practices they condemned. His followers increased rapidly, and were known as &ldquo;Children of Light,&rdquo; &ldquo;Children of Truth,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Friends of Truth&rdquo;; finally adopting the name &ldquo;Religious Society of Friends.&rdquo; Among them were many itinerant preachers; Fox in his journal (1654) says, above 60 in number. From the first imprisonment of Fox in 1649 to 1687 Friends were the objects of almost continuous persecution. In 1656 Fox computed there were seldom less than 1,000 in prison. Between the years 1661 and 1697, over 13,000 Friends were imprisoned in England, 198 were transported as slaves and 338 died in prison or of wounds received in assaults while attending meetings. These persecutions were upon various pretexts, as, the refusal to pay tithes, to swear or to remove the hat; for preaching in public places; as disturbers of public worship, for speaking in &ldquo;churches&rdquo; (a practice then not uncommon); and as Sabbath breakers, for traveling to their meetings on the day called the Sabbath. Many were apprehended for keeping an unlawful assembly under the Conventicle Act. Scotland, Ireland, the Continent and America were early visited by their ministers.

The first to arrive in New England were two women, Ann Austin and Mary Fisher, who came to Massachusetts from Barbados in 1656. After five weeks' imprisonment and much cruel treatment they were sent back. Stringent laws were promptly enacted by that colony to prevent others from coming and owners of vessels from bringing them. Regardless of the cruel penalties of these laws, the Quakers continued to arrive and suffer their infliction. In numerous instances delicate women were &ldquo;stripped naked from the middle up, tied to a cart's tail and whipped through the town&rdquo; and thence through other towns. Four — one a woman — were hanged on Boston Common. Nevertheless they increased in numbers and spread to adjoining colonies.

The first Friends in New Jersey settled along the Raritan River in 1663. In 1677 over 200 came to this province and founded Burlington. William Penn joined the society in 1667. In 1681 he and several other Friends purchased East New Jersey, and in the same year Penn obtained from the Crown the grant of Pennsylvania. A few Friends were in the province before Penn acquired it, and two shiploads came in the fall of 1681. The next year Penn

himself came with others, and in less than three years the colony had a population of 7,000. For a period of 70 years, and so long as the influence of Friends predominated, there were no conflicts with the Indians. At an early date the society cleared itself of human slavery. Friends began to protest against it as early as 1688, and for nearly 100 years the agitation was continued, until &ldquo;in the year 1787 there was not a slave in the possession of an acknowledged Quaker.&rdquo; This was largely due to the labors of John Woolman, a minister in New Jersey, whose journal has a literary reputation.

Organization and Discipline. — Fox and his co-laborers did not have an outward organization as an object. The organization and discipline were progressively developed. The first disciplinary meetings established were held monthly and were in a sense congregational. Some were held as early as 1656, but the practice does not appear to have become general before 1666. The first yearly meeting appears to have been held in 1656, the first in London in 1668, but it was not held there regularly until 1672. The first yearly meeting in America was held in Rhode Island in 1661. Monthly, quarterly and yearly meetings have geographical boundaries; and monthly meetings are subordinate to quarterly, and these to the yearly meeting, which is the source of discipline, and final judge of all questions. At stated periods monthly meetings appoint a few of their number as &ldquo;Overseers,&rdquo; whose duty it is to have a loving oversight of the members. Men and women hold separate meetings for business, although some subjects are jointly considered. Of late years the practice of separate meetings has largely been discontinued. Elders are men and women chosen out of the body as &ldquo;Friends of solid judgment, prudence and experience,&rdquo; to sit with the ministers and to advise, encourage or caution them as seems needful. Persons — men or women — who speak and pray in public to the satisfaction of the members are, in due time, publicly acknowledged as ministers, or those in whom the body recognizes the &ldquo;true gift.&rdquo; Such recognition does not confer upon them any new powers or authority. All members are embraced in a set of &ldquo;Queries&rdquo; which are answered, some quarterly — others annually, by meetings for discipline. These have reference to love and unity; attendance upon meetings; consistency in speech, behavior and apparel; oaths, military service and fraudulent business; moderation in trade and living, and just payment of debts; encouragement of a stated or paid ministry; care of the poor and education of children; and keeping records of births, deaths and marriages. (The answering of &ldquo;Queries&rdquo; has been discontinued in many meetings). Meetings have no presiding officer. In those for business a clerk is appointed, whose duty is to gather and record the sense or judgment of the meeting as expressed. No question is settled by a majority and no vote is taken. Christ is recognized as &ldquo;the head over all things to the church.&rdquo;

Distinguishing Views. — In the essential doctrines of the Christian religion Friends were in accord with their fellow Christians. The principal points in which they differed were:

1. Immediate Divine Revelation. Barclay (&lsquo;Apology&rsquo;) says: &ldquo;Nothing is less minded and more rejected by all sorts of Christians

than immediate divine revelation; insomuch that once to lay claim to it is matter of reproach.&rdquo; Again, &ldquo;He that affirms himself so led (by the spirit of God) is, by the pretended orthodox of this age, presently proclaimed an heretic.&rdquo; Fox (Journal) says: &ldquo;I saw that Christ had died for all men, and had enlightened all men and women with his divine and saving light. I was commanded to turn people to that inward light, spirit and grace, by which all might know their salvation and their way to God.&rdquo; Friends believed that this inward saving light of Christ was universal and came to both heathen and Christian.

2. Worship and Ministry. Barclay (&lsquo;Apology&rsquo;) says: &ldquo;All true and acceptable worship to God is offered in the inward and immediate moving and drawing of his own spirit. All other worship, praises, prayers and preachings, which man sets about in his own will, at his own appointment, and can begin and end at his pleasure are but superstitious will-worship.&rdquo; Again, &ldquo;As our worship consisteth not in words, so neither in silence as silence; but in an holy dependence of the mind upon God: from which dependence silence necessarily follows in the first place, until words can be brought forth which are from God's spirit.&rdquo; Hence silence is the basis of meetings for worship, which can be, and often are, held without a minister or any vocal service. Neither ministers, nor others, are supposed to break this silence without an immediate opening of a subject, and a sense that the Lord requires the delivery of the message revealed. No special training or educational qualifications are considered necessary for the ministry, and no consistent &ldquo;Quaker&rdquo; minister accepts pecuniary compensation for services in that capacity. Accepting literally the command of Christ to his apostles, &ldquo;Freely ye have received, freely give.&rdquo; Friends refuse to pay tithes or in other way to contribute to the support of a paid ministry.

3. Sacraments. Sacraments require the services of a priest or minister. Friends denied this necessity, rejecting all types and outward ordinances. They taught that the only saving baptism was that of the Holy Spirit, and that the true communion was not partaking of bread and wine, but the spiritual &ldquo;eating of the flesh and drinking of the blood&rdquo; of Christ. They held that marriage was the Lord's joining of man and woman, and, therefore, was not performed by man — men were but witnesses.

4. War, Oaths, etc. Friends have always maintained that war and oaths were inconsistent with Christianity, being forbidden by Christ and his apostles in the New Testament. Consistent members refuse to perform military service or partake in war-like preparations. They refuse oaths in civil courts or elsewhere as forbidden by Christ's language, &ldquo;Swear not at all.&rdquo; In their early history they suffered much on this account. They decline the use of complimentary titles and language, believing they proceed from pride and tend to foster it. They refuse the complimentary use of the plural pronoun to a single person, although the &ldquo;thou&rdquo; and &ldquo;thee&rdquo; to judges and magistrates has often resulted in suffering. They use the numerical language of Scripture instead of the names of months and days in honor of heathen deities. Their plainness of dress is a testimony against

pride, and any uniformity the result of a refusal to change its style at the dictates of fashion.

Present Condition and Membership. — With some unimportant exceptions the society maintained a practical unity until the year 1827. At that time a separation occurred in Philadelphia Yearly Meeting and later in others. Since then two district bodies have claimed the title &ldquo;Religious Society of Friends,&rdquo; commonly distinguished by the names &ldquo;Hicksite&rdquo; and &ldquo;Orthodox,&rdquo; although not recognized or officially used by either body. The name &ldquo;Hicksite&rdquo; came from Elias Hicks, a talented and popular minister of Long Island, whose ministry was the immediate cause of the schism. The Orthodox party hold that unsound doctrines caused the separations. The followers of Hicks, admitting differences in doctrines, contend that the real cause was not so much these differences, as an arbitrary exercise of authority by the Orthodox party. Quotations from Hicks establish the contention that the divinity of Jesus Christ, the doctrine of atonement, and the inspiration and authority of the Bible were denied or questioned. There were probably some grounds for the charge of an arbitrary spirit on the part of the Orthodox. In the separations, two-thirds of Philadelphia and New York yearly Meetings were of the &ldquo;Hicksite&rdquo; party, and in Baltimore four-fifths; in Ohio they were about evenly divided, while in Indiana Hicks had comparatively few sympathizers. No separations occurred in New England or North Carolina meetings, they continuing to be identified with the Orthodox bodies, which were officially recognized by London Yearly Meeting.

There are seven yearly meetings of the &ldquo;Hicksite&rdquo; Friends: Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York, Genesee (Canada), Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, numbering about 17,800 members. They are connected by epistolary correspondence. Their principal schools are Swarthmore College, and the George School in Pennsylvania, Friends Central in Philadelphia and similar schools in New York and Baltimore. The Friend's Intelligencer, an ably conducted weekly paper, is published in Philadelphia.

Several of the Orthodox yearly meetings have experienced separations. Joseph John Gurney of England, a wealthy and educated minister and voluminous writer, expressed views which many in England and America regarded as subversive of some always held by the society. Prominent among those in America who opposed his views was John Wilbur, a minister in New England. This resulted in a division in that Yearly Meeting in 1845, which was followed by one in Ohio in 1854. These, and later separations in others, resulted in two distinct bodies of Orthodox Friends within the limits of six yearly meetings, including Canada. They have been distinguished by the respective names, &ldquo;Gurney&rdquo; and &ldquo;Wilbur,&rdquo; and the terms &ldquo;Progressive&rdquo; and &ldquo;Conservative.&rdquo; In Ohio the &ldquo;Conservative&rdquo; body was the larger, and in each of the others the smaller. London gave its official recognition to the &ldquo;Progressive&rdquo; bodies. There are now 13 of these, connected with each other and with London and Dublin Yearly Meetings by correspondence: New England, New York, Canada, Baltimore, North Carolina, Ohio, Wilmington (Ohio), Western,

Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Oregon and California. Total membership in America about 75,000.

The six &ldquo;Conservative&rdquo; yearly meetings are: New England, Ohio, Canada, Western (Ind.), Iowa and Kansas. These annually exchange epistles. Their membership is about 4,000.

Philadelphia occupies a unique position, not being connected with either of these groups of related yearly meetings. That its sympathies were with Wilbur against the views of Gurney was shown by the recognition of the &ldquo;Wilbur&rdquo; Friends in Ohio. Later, in the interest of peace, Philadelphia ceased correspondence with all yearly meetings, and has never regularly resumed it. The membership is about 4,000. Within most &ldquo;Progressive&rdquo; yearly meetings paid pastors, prescribed services, singing, instrumental music and revival methods have been introduced; until, in many localities, the so-called &ldquo;Friends Churches&rdquo; more nearly resemble &ldquo;Methodists&rdquo; than &ldquo;Quakers.&rdquo; These yearly meetings have organized &ldquo;The Five Years Meeting,&rdquo; held periodically as the name indicates, having advisory rather than legislative powers. Most of them have recently adopted a &ldquo;Uniform Discipline.&rdquo; The principal schools of Orthodox Friends in America are: Haverford College, Pennsylvania; Earlham College, Iowa, Guilford College, North Carolina; Pacific College, Oregon; Westtown Boarding School, Pennsylvania; Friends Select School, Philadelphia; Friends Boarding School, Providence, R. I.; Friends Boarding School, Barnesville, Ohio. Their principal periodicals are The Friend, Philadelphia (weekly) and The American Friend, Philadelphia (weekly), organ of the Progressive Yearly Meetings.

Statistics. — The total membership in 1918 was given as about 142,000, the distribution being as follows: &ldquo;Orthodox&rdquo; in America, 97,514; in Great Britain, Ireland and Australia, 22,350. The &ldquo;Hicksite&rdquo; membership was about 17,806; that of the &ldquo;Wilburites&rdquo; 4,000; that of the &ldquo;Primitive&rdquo; branch 171. The Continental membership (Norway, Denmark, Germany, France, Turkey) was given a few years ago as 247.

Bibliography.— Brailsford, M. R., &lsquo;Cromwell's Quaker Soldiers&rsquo; (Contemporary Review, New York 1915); Braithwaite, W. C., &lsquo;The Beginnings of Quakerism&rsquo; (London 1912); Clarke, M. E., &lsquo;The Friends in France&rsquo; (Cornhill Magazine, London 1916); Cunningham, Y., &lsquo;The Quakers from their Origin Till the Present Time&rsquo; (London 1897); &lsquo;Early Quakerism in Ireland&rsquo; (Friends' Historical Society Journal, London 1910); Fox, G, &lsquo;The American Journey of George Fox, 1671-73&rsquo; (Friends' Historical Society Journal, London 1912); Holder, C. F., &lsquo;The Quakers in Great Britain and America&rsquo; (New York 1913); Jones, R. M., &lsquo;The Quakers in the American Colonies&rsquo; (London 1911); Penn, W., &lsquo;A Brief Account of the Rise and Progress of the People called Quakers&rsquo; (London 1695) and &lsquo;The Select Works of William Penn&rsquo; (London 1825); Speakman, T. H., &lsquo;Divisions in the Society of Friends&rsquo; (Philadelphia 1893); Woodman, C. M., &lsquo;The Present Day Message of Quakerism&rsquo; (Boston 1915).