The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Burma

BURMA, India, the largest province of British India, on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, at one time formed the greater portion of a native kingdom or empire, which is said to have extended from lat. 9° to 26° N., and from long. 92° to 104° E. Its greatest length was about 1,000 miles and its breadth 600, its area being then about 270,000 English square miles. In 1826 the provinces or divisions of Arracan and Tenasserim were occupied by the British, and in 1852 Pegu and the province of Martaban shared the same fate. This portion was then known as British Burma and continued to be so till in 1886 the rest of the kingdom was annexed by Great Britain, when the two portions came to be designated Upper and Lower Burma, respectively. They now form together one province under a lieutenant-governor and legislative council. Total area, about 231,000 square miles; population, over 12,000,000, mainly Buddhists.

Lower Burma is to a large extent mountainous in character, the only extensive level being in Pegu, where the valleys of the Irrawadi and Sittaung form an alluvial tract of about 10,000 square miles. The rainfall varies from less than 60 inches in some places to 190 or more in others. About half the soil is believed to be cultivatable, but a comparatively small portion is as yet under cultivation, though agriculture is extending year by year. Since the occupation of the country by the British it has rapidly increased in prosperity, and the revenue is generally greater than the expenditure. The imports and exports together exceed $84,500,000, the bulk of the trade being with Great Britain. The capital and principal port is Rangoon. Other towns are Moulmein, Akyab and Bassein. Upper Burma is on the whole similar in character to Lower Burma, but less productive, and has generally a smaller rainfall. It is rich in minerals, including gold, silver, precious stones, marble, iron, lead, tin, antimony, arsenic, sulphur and petroleum. Only a few of these are worked. The chief precious stones are the ruby and the sapphire; amber and jade are also

found. All precious stones used to be sent to the royal treasury and strangers were prohibited from approaching the places where they were found. These districts are still the subject of special regulation under the British rule. The whole country is intersected by numerous streams, which, following the direction of the chief mountain chains, flow generally south to the Indian Ocean. The chief of these are the Irrawadi, the Salween and the Chindwin, which joins the Irrawadi, the combined stream being of great volume. The Irrawadi is of great value as a highway of communication and traffic, being navigable beyond Bhamo, near the Chinese frontier. In their upper courses the rivers flow through narrow valleys; in their lower courses they traverse low-lying districts, and in the rainy season often overflow their banks. Among the wild animals of the country are the elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, deer of various kinds and the wild hog. The rivers abound with fish. Of domestic animals we may mention the ox, buffalo, horse, elephant and cat. In the southern districts, owing to the numerous rivers, the soil is most productive. Here grow rice, sugar cane, tobacco, cotton, indigo and all the tropical fruits. Tea is cultivated in many of the more elevated parts. The forests produce timber of many sorts, including teak. A great part of the trade of the country is carried on by means of the Irrawadi River. From Bhamo goods are conveyed to China. Rice is the great crop (occupying about 80 per cent of the cultivated area), and this grain forms the chief export, others being teak, cotton and silk stuffs, petroleum, saltpetre, paper and lacquer ware. About 12,446 miles of roads are maintained, and the number of railway miles open is now about 1,000. From Rangoon two lines proceed north, one along the left bank of the Irrawadi to Prome and Meaday, the other through the Sittaung Valley to Mandalay, and from that on the other side of the Irrawadi to Bhamo and Mogaung.

The Burmese have many skilful weavers, smiths, sculptors, workers in gold and silver, joiners, etc. Among industrial establishments are rice-mills, saw-mills, a few works for iron goods, ship-building yards, cutch works, etc. Other industries include boat-building, weaving, pottery, lacquerwork and brasswork. The weaving of cotton and silk goods is carried on by the women everywhere. The pottery of the country is strong and durable, if not especially artistic; and the gold and silver work finds numerous purchasers outside the country. Wood-carving is extensively practised for the adornment of houses, boats, etc. The native vessels plying on the Irrawadi and other rivers are often of 100 to 150 tons burden, while thousands of small craft are engaged in trade or fishing. Large numbers of good cigars are made by women, and-are partly used in the country, partly exported. The buildings among the Burmese are very slight, as the government used to require them to be chiefly of wood or bamboo, and prohibited the use of stone or brick except for pagodas, and other important structures.

People.— The Burmese are divided into several tribes, and belong to the common Indo-Chinese stock. Among the tribes other than the Burmese proper are the Karens, Kakhyens,

Shans, etc. The Burmese proper are of a brown color, with lank, black hair, and vigorous, well-proportioned frames. No Burmese can have more than one wife; but he may have as many mistresses as he will. The latter live in the same house with the wife, and are her servants. The Burmese women enjoy a good deal of freedom; are not shut up as in some parts of the East, and can even engage in a lawsuit in their own name. The chief amusement of the Burmese is their theatre, where declamation, dancing and music are given by turns. The new year (which begins in April) is celebrated with what is known as the “water feast,” when young men and women throw water on each other and the passers-by. The Burmese usually write on palm leaves with an iron style or on black tablets with a pencil; the rich have libraries, with books, the leaves of some of which are thin pieces of ivory, with gilt edges. Their materia medica is chiefly confined to herbs, spices and mercury; with vaccination they have long been acquainted. The language is monosyllabic, like Chinese, and written with an alphabet (derived from India), the characters of which are more or less circular. Among the common people the principal part of the male dress consists of a double piece of cloth about five yards long, loosely wrapped about the body. Over this a frock is worn, with sleeves open in front, and reaching below the knees. The lower classes of women wear only a single garment, resembling a sheet, wrapped round the body and fastened under the arms. Men of rank wear a long robe of flowered velvet or satin, with open sleeves and collar, a mantle or scarf being thrown over this. On the head is worn a high velvet or silk cap, plain or embroidered, according to rank. The men wear earrings, often of large size. Women of the higher classes generally wear a shift which reaches only to the pit of the stomach, where it is drawn tight and fastened by strings. This is covered by a loose jacket, with tight sleeves. A piece of silk or cloth encircles the waist and descends to the feet. When a woman wishes to be particularly fine she stains her nails and palms a red color, and tinges her teeth and the edges of her eyelids with black. Both sexes wear the hair long; the men tying it in a knot on the crown of the head, the women on the back. Sandals are often worn, but neither boots, shoes nor stockings; every man, woman and child, however, carries an umbrella. The chewing of betel and smoking of tobacco are universal. The Kakhyens or Singfo are a courageous people inhabiting the upper basin of the Irrawadi above Bhamo. They practise a sort of nature worship, and are active as traders, though at present rather lawless. Their villages are ruled by hereditary chiefs. Chinese from Yunnan have settled in considerable numbers as traders and agriculturists in the Kakhyen country; and in Lower Burma they are now a highly important element in the population as traders and otherwise. In the hilly districts of Tenasserim and Pegu we find the Karens, a somewhat secluded people, less intelligent and more ignorant than the Burmese, and not so purely Mongolian in physical character. The Talaings or Mons of the Irrawadi delta resemble the Burmese, but speak a distinct language. The Shans are a numerous people

closely allied to the Siamese, and inhabiting eastern and northeastern Burma, together with portions of the neighboring countries.

The native government was an absolute monarchy, the King having unlimited power over life and property. The seat of government, after oscillating between Ava and Amarapura, was latterly fixed in Mandalay, a new town founded in 1857, and situated in a dusty plain a little over two miles from the left bank of the Irrawadi, and about 28 miles northwest from Amarapura. The King was assisted in governing by a council of state known as the Hlootdaw, to which belonged at once the functions of a legislature, a cabinet and a supreme court of justice. It was composed of officials of 14 grades, the president being the King himself, some other member of the royal family or the Prime Minister. The King had power to punish at his pleasure anyone, including even the great officers of state. The public revenue was derived from taxes levied in a very irregular and capricious manner, and as the officials received no fixed salary corruption and oppression were extremely prevalent. The criminal laws were barbarously severe. Capital punishment was commonly inflicted by decapitation, but crucifixion and disemboweling were also practised. Torture might be applied to principals or witnesses; and trial by ordeal was not unknown. The standing army was small. Levies were made, in case of war, by way of conscription; and a specified number of houses was required to furnish a soldier or pay a fine. The religion of the country is that of Buddha, which is said to exist here in great purity. The tutelary divinities worshipped in various Buddhist countries are unknown, and the vows of poverty and chastity taken by the monks are said to be less frequently broken here than elsewhere. The Burmese possess a complete system of education so far as male children are concerned. All boys are required to reside in a religious house for three years and there they act as servants to the priests who instruct them in reading, writing and arithmetic, as well as the doctrines of their religion. Upward of 90 per cent of the population dwell in rural areas, and no tendency toward gravitation to the towns is observed. Notwithstanding the fact that the social position of women is so assured in Burma and that there is no suspicion of the existence of female infanticide, women number only 962 in 1,000 against 1,006 and 1,022 in Bengal and Madras. But the explanation probably lies in the preponderance of the male element among the numerous immigrants into the province. Marriage in Burma is a purely secular ceremony, and elementary education is far more widely dispersed than in India, one individual in five being able to read and write.

History.—The Burmese empire is of little note in ancient or general history. Buddhism and civilization are said to have been introduced from India. The last native dynasty was founded by a Burmese called Alompra, a man of obscure birth, who defeated the Peguans, and in 1753 obtained possession of Ava. Having made himself master of Burma, he invaded Siam; but during this invasion he died suddenly in 1760. Alompra ruled well and wisely, and Namdogee, his eldest son and successor, who died in 1764, inheriting his father's spirit,

introduced various reforms and useful measures. Shembaun (Tshen-bo-yen), the Emperor's brother, became regent as guardian for his nephew Momien; but he usurped the throne himself and conquered Siam. In 1771, however, Siam recovered its independence, while the principal part of the Burmese forces were engaged in a war with China. In this war they were victorious, and compelled the Chinese whom they took prisoners to intermarry with Burmese females, and to remain in their territory. In 1776 Shembuan left his empire, much enlarged, to his son, Chenguza. This prince lived in the unrestrained indulgence of every appetite till in 1782 he was dethroned and put to death. In consequence of the revolution, Mentaragyi, the fourth son of Alompra, ascended the throne. He ordered his nephew, Momien, who was a state prisoner, to be drowned, and in 1783 subdued the kingdom of Arracan. He then engaged in a war with Siam, which continued till 1793, when peace was made on certain conditions. About this period, it happened that some robbers fled from the Burmese empire, and took refuge in the territory of the East India Company. The Burmese demanded that they should be delivered up, and on their demands not being immediately complied with, marched with a strong force into the offending country. At the same time they carried on a friendly negotiation with the government in Calcutta, which resulted in the surrender of the criminals, and the conclusion of a treaty of amity and commerce between the two governments, negotiated by Captain Symes. The last victory of the Burmese was in 1822 over the province of Assam. The party driven from Assam, together with the Burmese rebels, fled to the British territories, whence they intended to invade Burma. The British government disarmed the insurgents, but refused to deliver them up or to drive them from the island of Shapuri, which they had occupied. At length the Burmese sovereign demanded of the government at Calcutta the cession of northern Bengal as being a part of Ava, and in January 1824 his forces marched into Cachar, which was under British protection. Lord Amherst, as governor-general of the British East Indies, now declared war against Burma, and Gen. Archibald Campbell prosecuted it so successfully that after the victory at Prome (1-3 Dec. 1825), he obliged the monarch to conclude a peace at Palanagh in 1825. As the treaty was not ratified on the part of the Burmese Emperor by the time specified (18 Jan. 1826), Campbell renewed the war and stormed the fortress of Munnum. On 24 February the peace was ratified, and the war concluded with the cession of Arracan, Mergui, Tavoy, etc. In 1852 a second war broke out at the conclusion of which Rangoon and the whole of Pegu fell into the hands of the British. About 1860 the new city Mandalay supplanted Amarapura as the capital. In 1867 British steamers were permitted by treaty to navigate Burmese rivers, and not long after traffic was carried on up the Irrawadi as far as Bhamo. In 1885 the outrageous proceedings of King Theebaw provoked another war, and a British force proceeded from Rangoon up the Irrawadi River, took Mandalay and sent King Theebaw a prisoner to Rangoon. On 1 Jan. 1886, Theebaw's dominions were annexed to the British empire by Proclamation of the viceroy of India (the

Earl of Dufferin). After the annexation there was a considerable amount of scattered fighting with dacoits and others, but this has ceased since 1890 and the country is now opened up to commerce, and is rapidly advancing in prosperity. In 1897 Burma was constituted a province, and placed under a lieutenant-governor instead of a chief commissioner.

Bibliography.—Clifford, H. C., ‘Further India’ (New York 1904); Coxon, S. W., ‘And That Reminds Me’ (London 1915); Dautremer, J., ‘Une colonie modele- la Birmanie’ (Paris 1912); Kelly, R. T., ‘Burma, Painted and Described’ (London 1912); White, T., ‘A Civil Servant in Burma’ (London 1913).