The American Practical Navigator/Chapter 33

= CHAPTER 33 ICE NAVIGATION =

3300. Ice and the Navigator
Sea ice has posed a problem to the navigator since antiquity. During a voyage from the Mediterranean to England and Norway sometime between 350 B.C. and 300 B.C., Pytheas of Massalia sighted a strange substance which he described as “neither land nor air nor water” floating upon and covering the northern sea over which the summer Sun barely set. Pytheas named this lonely region Thule, hence Ultima Thule (farthest north or land’s end). Thus began over 20 centuries of polar exploration.

Ice is of direct concern to the navigator because it restricts and sometimes controls his movements; it affects his dead reckoning by forcing frequent changes of course and speed; it affects piloting by altering the appearance or obliterating the features of landmarks; it hinders the establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation; it affects the use of electronic equipment by affecting propagation of radio waves; it produces changes in surface features and in radar returns from these features; it affects celestial navigation by altering the refraction and obscuring the horizon and celestial bodies either directly or by the weather it influences, and it affects charts by introducing several plotting problems.

Because of his direct concern with ice, the prospective polar navigator must acquaint himself with its nature and extent in the area he expects to navigate. In addition to this volume, books, articles, and reports of previous polar operations and expeditions will help acquaint the polar navigator with the unique conditions at the ends of the Earth.

3301. Formation of Ice
As it cools, water contracts until the temperature of maximum density is reached. Further cooling results in expansion. The maximum density of fresh water occurs at a temperature of 4.0°C, and freezing takes place at 0°C. The addition of salt lowers both the temperature of maximum density and, to a lesser extent, that of freezing. These relationships are shown in Figure 3301. The two lines meet at a salinity of 24.7 parts per thousand, at which maximum density occurs at the freezing temperature of –1.3°C. At this and greater salinities, the temperature of maximum density of sea water is coincident with the freezing point temperature, i. e., the density increases as the temperature gets colder. At a salinity of 35 parts per thousand, the approximate average for the oceans, the freezing point is –1.88°C. As the density of surface seawater increases with decreasing temperature, convective density-driven currents are induced bringing warmer, less dense water to the surface. If the polar seas consisted of water with constant salinity, the entire water column would have to be cooled to the freezing point in this manner before ice would begin to form. This is not the case, however, in the polar regions where the vertical salinity distribution is such that the surface waters are underlain at shallow depth by waters of higher salinity. In this instance density currents form a shallow mixed layer which subsequently cannot mix with the deep layer of warmer but saltier water. Ice will then begin forming at the water surface when density currents cease and the surface water reaches its freezing point. In shoal water, however, the mixing process can be sufficient to extend the freezing temperature from the surface to the bottom. Ice crystals can, therefore, form at any depth in this case. Because of their decreased density, they tend to rise to the surface, unless they form at the bottom and attach themselves there. This ice, called anchor ice, may continue to grow as additional ice freezes to that already formed.

3302. Land Ice
Ice of land origin is formed on land by the freezing of freshwater or the compacting of snow as layer upon layer adds to the pressure on that beneath. Under great pressure, ice becomes slightly plastic, and is forced downward along an inclined surface. If a large area is relatively flat, as on the Antarctic plateau, or if the outward flow is obstructed, as on Greenland, an ice cap forms and remains essentially permanent. The thickness of these ice caps ranges from nearly 1 kilometer on Greenland to as much as 4.5 kilometers on the Antarctic Continent. Where ravines or mountain passes permit flow of the ice, a glacier is formed. This is a mass of snow and ice which continuously flows to lower levels, exhibiting many of the characteristics of rivers of water. The flow may be more than 30 meters per day, but is generally much less. When a glacier reaches a comparatively level area, it spreads out. When a glacier flows into the sea, the buoyant force of the water breaks off pieces from time to time, and these float away as icebergs. Icebergs may be described as dome shaped, sloping or pinnacled (Figure 3302a), tabular (Figure 3302b), glacier, or weathered.

A floating iceberg seldom melts uniformly because of lack of uniformity in the ice itself, differences in the temperature above and below the waterline, exposure of one side to the Sun, strains, cracks, mechanical erosion, etc. The inclusion of rocks, silt, and other foreign matter further accentuates the differences. As a result, changes in equilibrium take place, which may cause the berg to periodically tilt or capsize. Parts of it may break off or calve, forming separate smaller bergs. A relatively large piece of floating ice, generally extending 1 to 5 meters above the sea surface and normally about 100 to 300 square meters in area, is called a bergy bit. A smaller piece of ice large enough to inflict serious damage to a vessel is called a growler because of the noise it sometimes makes as it bobs up and down in the sea. Growlers extend less than 1 meter above the sea surface and normally occupy an area of about 20 square meters. Bergy bits and growlers are usually pieces calved from icebergs, but they may be the remains of a mostly melted iceberg.

One danger from icebergs is their tendency to break or capsize. Soon after a berg is calved, while remaining in far northern waters, 60–80% of its bulk is submerged. But as the berg drifts into warmer waters, the underside can sometimes melt faster than the exposed portion, especially in very cold weather. As the mass of the submerged portion deteriorates, the berg becomes increasingly unstable, and it may eventually roll over. Icebergs that have not yet capsized have a jagged and possibly dirty appearance. A recently capsized berg will be smooth, clean, and curved in appearance. Previous waterlines at odd angles can sometimes be seen after one or more capsizings.

The stability of a berg can sometimes be noted by its reaction to ocean swells. The livelier the berg, the more unstable it is. It is extremely dangerous for a vessel to approach an iceberg closely, even one which appears stable, because in addition to the danger from capsizing, unseen cracks can cause icebergs to split in two or calve off large chunks.

Another danger is from underwater extensions, called rams, which are usually formed due to melting or erosion above the waterline at a faster rate than below. Rams may also extend from a vertical ice cliff, also known as an ice front, which forms the seaward face of a massive ice sheet or floating glacier; or from an ice wall, which is the ice cliff forming the seaward margin of a glacier which is aground. In addition to rams, large portions of an iceberg may extend well beyond the waterline at greater depths. Strangely, icebergs may be helpful to the mariner in some ways. The melt water found on the surface of icebergs is a source of freshwater, and in the past some daring sea-

Figure 3301. Relationship between temperature of maximum density and freezing point for water of varying salinity.

men have made their vessels fast to icebergs which, because they are affected more by currents than the wind, have proceeded to tow them out of the ice pack. Icebergs can be used as a navigational aid in extreme latitudes where charted depths may be in doubt or non-existent. Since an iceberg (except a large tabular berg) must be at least as deep in the water as it is high to remain upright, a grounded berg can provide an estimate of the minimum water depth at its location. Water depth will be at least equal to the exposed height of the grounded iceberg. Grounded bergs remain stationary while current and wind move sea ice past them. Drifting ice may pile up against the upcurrent side of a grounded berg.

3303. Sea Ice
Sea ice forms by the freezing of seawater and accounts for 95 percent of all ice encountered. The first indication of

Figure 3302a. Pinnacled iceberg. Figure 3302b. A tabular iceberg.

the formation of new sea ice (up to 10 centimeters in thickness) is the development of small individual, needle-like crystals of ice, called spicules, which become suspended in the top few centimeters of seawater. These spicules, also known as frazil ice, give the sea surface an oily appearance. Grease ice is formed when the spicules coagulate to form a soupy layer on the surface, giving the sea a matte appearance. The next stage in sea ice formation occurs when shuga, an accumulation of spongy white ice lumps a few centimeters across, develops from grease ice. Upon further freezing, and depending upon wind exposure, seas, and salinity, shuga and grease ice develop into nilas, an elastic crust of high salinity, up to 10 centimeters in thickness, with a matte surface, or into ice rind, a brittle, shiny crust of low salinity with a thickness up to approximately 5 centimeters. A layer of 5 centimeters of freshwater ice is brittle but strong enough to support the weight of a heavy man. In contrast, the same thickness of newly formed sea ice will support not more than about 10 percent of this weight, although its strength varies with the temperatures at which it is formed; very cold ice supports a greater weight than warmer ice. As it ages, sea ice becomes harder and more brittle.

New ice may also develop from slush which is formed when snow falls into seawater which is near its freezing point, but colder than the melting point of snow. The snow does not melt, but floats on the surface, drifting with the wind into beds. If the temperature then drops below the freezing point of the seawater, the slush freezes quickly into a soft ice similar to shuga.

Sea ice is exposed to several forces, including currents, waves, tides, wind, and temperature variations. In its early stages, its plasticity permits it to conform readily to virtually any shape required by the forces acting upon it. As it becomes older, thicker, more brittle, and exposed to the influence of wind and wave action, new ice usually separates into circular pieces from 30 centimeters to 3 meters in diameter and up to approximately 10 centimeters in thickness with raised edges due to individual pieces striking against each other. These circular pieces of ice are called pancake ice (Figure 3303) and may break into smaller pieces with strong wave motion. Any single piece of relatively flat sea ice less than 20 meters across is called an ice cake. With continued low temperatures, individual ice cakes and pancake ice will, depending on wind or wave motion, either freeze together to form a continuous sheet or unite into pieces of ice 20 meters or more across. These larger pieces are then called ice floes, which may further freeze together to form an ice covered area greater than 10 kilometers across known as an ice field. In wind sheltered areas thickening ice usually forms a continuous sheet before it can develop into the characteristic ice cake form. When sea ice reaches a thickness of between 10 to 30 centimeters it is referred to as gray and gray-white ice, or collectively as young ice, and is the transition stage between nilas and first-year ice. First-year ice usually attains a thickness of between 30 centimeters and 2 meters in its first winter’s growth.

Sea ice may grow to a thickness of 10 to 13 centimeters within 48 hours, after which it acts as an insulator between the ocean and the atmosphere progressively slowing its further growth. However, sea ice may grow to a thickness of between 2 to 3 meters in its first winter. Ice which has survived at least one summer’s melt is classified as old ice. If it has survived only one summer’s melt it may be referred to as second-year ice, but this term is seldom used today. Old ice which has attained a thickness of 3 meters or more and has survived at least two summers’ melt is known as multiyear ice and is almost salt free. This term is increasingly used to refer to any ice more than one season old. Old ice can be recognized by a bluish tone to its surface color in contrast to the greenish tint of first-year ice, but it is often covered with snow. Another sign of old ice is a smoother, more rounded appearance due to melting/refreezing and weathering.

Greater thicknesses in both first and multiyear ice are attained through the deformation of the ice resulting from the movement and interaction of individual floes. Deformation processes occur after the development of new and young ice and are the direct consequence of the effects of winds, tides, and currents. These processes transform a relatively flat sheet of ice into pressure ice which has a rough surface. Bending, which is the first stage in the formation of pressure ice, is the upward or downward motion of thin and very plastic ice. Rarely, tenting occurs when bending produces an upward displacement of ice forming a flat sided arch with a cavity beneath. More frequently, however, rafting takes place as one piece of ice overrides another. When pieces of first-year ice are piled haphazardly over one another forming a wall or line of broken ice, referred to as a ridge, the process is known as ridging. Pressure ice with topography consisting of

Figure 3303. Pancake ice, with an iceberg in the background.

numerous mounds or hillocks is called hummocked ice, each mound being called a hummock. The motion of adjacent floes is seldom equal. The rougher the surface, the greater is the effect of wind, since each piece extending above the surface acts as a sail. Some ice floes are in rotary motion as they tend to trim themselves into the wind. Since ridges extend below as well as above the surface, the deeper ones are influenced more by deep water currents. When a strong wind blows in the same direction for a considerable period, each floe exerts pressure on the next one, and as the distance increases, the pressure becomes tremendous. Ridges on sea ice are generally about 1 meter high and 5 meters deep, but under considerable pressure may attain heights of 20 meters and depths of 50 meters in extreme cases.

The alternate melting and growth of sea ice, combined with the continual motion of various floes that results in separation as well as consolidation, causes widely varying conditions within the ice cover itself. The mean areal density, or concentration, of pack ice in any given area is expressed in tenths. Concentrations range from: Open water (total concentration of all ice is < one tenth) Very open pack (1-3 tenths concentration) Open pack (4-6 tenths concentration) Close pack (7-8 tenths concentration) Very close pack (9-10 to <10-10 concentration) Compact or consolidated pack (100% coverage) The extent to which an ice cover of varying concentrations can be penetrated by a vessel varies from place to place and with changing weather conditions. With a concentration of 1 to 3 tenths in a given area, an unreinforced vessel can generally navigate safely, but the danger of receiving heavy damage is always present. When the concentration increases to between 3 and 5 tenths, the area becomes only occasionally accessible to an unreinforced vessel, depending upon the wind and current. With concentrations of 5 to 7 tenths, the area becomes accessible only to ice strengthened vessels, which on occasion will require icebreaker assistance. Navigation in areas with concentrations of 7 tenths or more should only be attempted by icebreakers.

Within the ice cover, openings may develop resulting from a number of deformation processes. Long, jagged cracks may appear first in the ice cover or through a single floe. When these cracks part and reach lengths of a few meters to many kilometers, they are referred to as fractures. If they widen further to permit passage of a ship, they are called leads. In winter, a thin coating of new ice may cover the water within a lead, but in summer the water usually remains ice-free until a shift in the movement forces the two sides together again. A lead ending in a pressure ridge or other impenetrable barrier is a blind lead. A lead between pack ice and shore is a shore lead, and one between pack and fast ice is a flaw lead. Navigation in these two types of leads is dangerous, because if the pack ice closes with the fast ice, the ship can be caught between the two, and driven aground or caught in the shear zone between.

Before a lead refreezes, lateral motion generally occurs between the floes, so that they no longer fit and unless the pressure is extreme, numerous large patches of open water remain. These nonlinear shaped openings enclosed in ice are called polynyas. Polynyas may contain small fragments of floating ice and may be covered with miles of new and young ice. Recurring polynyas occur in areas where upwelling of relatively warmer water occurs periodically. These areas are often the site of historical native settlements, where the polynyas permit fishing and hunting at times before regular seasonal ice breakup. Thule, Greenland, is an example.

Sea ice which is formed in situ from seawater or by the freezing of pack ice of any age to the shore and which remains attached to the coast, to an ice wall, to an ice front, or between shoals is called fast ice. The width of this fast ice varies considerably and may extend for a few meters or several hundred kilometers. In bays and other sheltered areas, fast ice, often augmented by annual snow accumulations and the seaward extension of land ice, may attain a thickness of over 2 meters above the sea surface. When a floating sheet of ice grows to this or a greater thickness and extends over a great horizontal distance, it is called an ice shelf. Massive ice shelves, where the ice thickness reaches several hundred meters, are found in both the Arctic and Antarctic.

The majority of the icebergs found in the Antarctic do not originate from glaciers, as do those found in the Arctic, but are calved from the outer edges of broad expanses of shelf ice. Icebergs formed in this manner are called tabular icebergs, having a box like shape with horizontal dimensions measured in kilometers, and heights above the sea surface approaching 60 meters. See Figure 3302b. The largest Antarctic ice shelves are found in the Ross and Weddell Seas. The expression “tabular iceberg” is not applied to bergs which break off from Arctic ice shelves; similar formations there are called ice islands. These originate when shelf ice, such as that found on the northern coast of Greenland and in the bays of Ellesmere Island, breaks up. As a rule, Arctic ice islands are not as large as the tabular icebergs found in the Antarctic. They attain a thickness of up to 55 meters and on the average extend 5 to 7 meters above the sea surface. Both tabular icebergs and ice islands possess a gently rolling surface. Because of their deep draft, they are influenced much more by current than wind. Arctic ice islands have been used as floating scientific platforms from which polar research has been conducted.

3304. Thickness of Sea Ice
Sea ice has been observed to grow to a thickness of almost 3 meters during its first year. However, the thickness of firstyear ice that has not undergone deformation does not generally exceed 2 meters. In coastal areas where the melting rate is less than the freezing rate, the thickness may increase during succeeding winters, being augmented by compacted and frozen snow, until a maximum thickness of about 3.5 to 4.5 meters may eventually be reached. Old sea ice may also attain a thickness of over 4 meters in this manner, or when summer melt water from its surface or from snow cover runs off into the sea and refreezes under the ice where the seawater temperature is below the freezing point of the fresher melt water. The growth of sea ice is dependent upon a number of meteorological and oceanographic parameters. Such parameters include air temperature, initial ice thickness, snow depth, wind speed, seawater salinity and density, and the specific heats of sea ice and seawater. Investigations, how-

Figure 3304a. Relationship between accumulated frost degree days and theoretical ice thickness at Point Barrow, Alaska.

ever, have shown that the most influential parameters affecting sea ice growth are air temperature, wind speed, snow depth and initial ice thickness. Many complex equations have been formulated to predict ice growth using these four parameters. However, except for the first two, these parameters are not routinely observed for remote polar locations.

Field measurements suggest that reasonable growth estimates can be obtained from air temperature data alone.Various empirical formulae have been developed based on this premise. All appear to perform better under thin ice conditions when the temperature gradient through the ice is linear, generally true for ice less than 100 centimeters thick. Differences in predicted thicknesses between models generally reflect differences in environmental parameters (snowfall, heat content of the underlying water column, etc.) at the measurement site. As a result, such equations must be considered partially site specific and their general use approached with caution. For example, applying an equation derived from central Arctic data to coastal conditions or to Antarctic conditions could lead to substantial errors. For this reason Zubov’s formula is widely cited as it represents an average of many years of observations from the Russian Arctic: where h is the ice thickness in centimeters for a given day and f is the cumulative number of frost degree days in degrees Celsius since the beginning of the freezing season. A frost degree day is defined as a day with a mean temperature of 1° below an arbitrary base. The base most commonly used is the freezing point of freshwater (0°C). If, for example, the mean temperature on a given day is 5° below freezing, then five frost degree days are noted for that day. These frost degree days are then added to those noted the next day to obtain an accumulated value, which is then added to those noted the following day. This process is repeated daily throughout the ice growing season. Temperatures usually fluctuate above and below freezing for several days before remaining below freezing. Therefore, frost degree day accumulations are initiated on the first day of the period when temperatures remain below freezing. The relationship between frost degree day accumulations and theoretical ice growth curves at Point Barrow, Alaska is shown in Figure 3304a. Similar curves for other Arctic stations are contained in publications available from the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office and the National Ice Center. Figure 3304b graphically depicts the relationship between accumulated frost degree days (°C) and ice thickness in centimeters.

During winter, the ice usually becomes covered with snow, which insulates the ice beneath and tends to slow down its rate of growth. This thickness of snow cover varies considerably from region to region as a result of differing climatic conditions. Its depth may also vary widely within very short distances in response to variable winds and ice topography. While this snow cover persists, about 80 to 85 percent of the incoming radiation is reflected back to space. Eventually, however, the snow begins to melt, as the air temperature rises above 0°C in early summer and the resulting freshwater forms puddles on the surface. These puddles absorb about 90 percent of the incoming radiation Figure 3304b. Relationship between accumulated frost degree days (°C) and ice thickness (cm). h 2 + 50h = 8f

and rapidly enlarge as they melt the surrounding snow or ice. Eventually the puddles penetrate to the bottom surface of the floes forming thawholes. This slow process is characteristic of ice in the Arctic Ocean and seas where movement is restricted by the coastline or islands. Where ice is free to drift into warmer waters (e.g., the Antarctic, East Greenland, and the Labrador Sea), decay is accelerated in response to wave erosion as well as warmer air and sea temperatures.

3305. Salinity of Sea Ice
Sea ice forms first as salt-free crystals near the surface of the sea. As the process continues, these crystals are joined together and, as they do so, small quantities of brine are trapped within the ice. On the average, new ice 15 centimeters thick contains 5 to 10 parts of salt per thousand. With lower temperatures, freezing takes place faster. With faster freezing, a greater amount of salt is trapped in the ice. Depending upon the temperature, the trapped brine may either freeze or remain liquid, but because its density is greater than that of the pure ice, it tends to settle down through the pure ice. As it does so, the ice gradually freshens, becoming clearer, stronger, and more brittle. At an age of 1 year, sea ice is sufficiently fresh that its melt water, if found in puddles of sufficient size, and not contaminated by spray from the sea, can be used to replenish the freshwater supply of a ship. However, ponds of sufficient size to water ships are seldom found except in ice of great age, and then much of the meltwater is from snow which has accumulated on the surface of the ice. When sea ice reaches an age of about 2 years, virtually all of the salt has been eliminated. Icebergs, having formed from precipitation, contain no salt, and uncontaminated melt water obtained from them is fresh.

The settling out of the brine gives sea ice a honeycomb structure which greatly hastens its disintegration when the temperature rises above freezing. In this state, when it is called rotten ice, much more surface is exposed to warm air and water, and the rate of melting is increased. In a day’s time, a floe of apparently solid ice several inches thick may disappear completely.

3306. Density of Ice
The density of freshwater ice at its freezing point is 0.917gm/cm3. Newly formed sea ice, due to its salt content, is more dense, 0.925 gm/cm3 being a representative value. The density decreases as the ice freshens. By the time it has shed most of its salt, sea ice is less dense than freshwater ice, because ice formed in the sea contains more air bubbles. Ice having no salt but containing air to the extent of 8 percent by volume (an approximately maximum value for sea ice) has a density of 0.845 gm/cm3.

The density of land ice varies over even wider limits. That formed by freezing of freshwater has a density of 0.917gm/cm3, as stated above. Much of the land ice, however, is formed by compacting of snow. This results in the entrapping of relatively large quantities of air. Névé, a snow which has become coarse grained and compact through temperature change, forming the transition stage to glacier ice, may have an air content of as much as 50 percent by volume. By the time the ice of a glacier reaches the sea, its density approaches that of freshwater ice. A sample taken from an iceberg on the Grand Banks had a density of 0.899gm/cm3.

When ice floats, part of it is above water and part is below the surface. The percentage of the mass below the surface can be found by dividing the average density of the ice by the density of the water in which it floats. Thus, if an iceberg of density 0.920 floats in water of density 1.028 (corresponding to a salinity of 35 parts per thousand and a temperature of –1°C), 89.5 percent of its mass will be below the surface.

The height to draft ratio for a blocky or tabular iceberg probably varies fairly closely about 1:5. This average ratio was computed for icebergs south of Newfoundland by considering density values and a few actual measurements, and by seismic means at a number of locations along the edge of the Ross Ice Shelf near Little America Station. It was also substantiated by density measurements taken in a nearby hole drilled through the 256-meter thick ice shelf. The height to draft ratios of icebergs become significant when determining their drift.

3307. Drift of Sea Ice
Although surface currents have some affect upon the drift of pack ice, the principal factor is wind. Due to Coriolis force, ice does not drift in the direction of the wind, but varies from approximately 18° to as much as 90° from this direction, depending upon the force of the surface wind and the ice thickness. In the Northern Hemisphere, this drift is to the right of the direction toward which the wind blows, and in the Southern Hemisphere it is toward the left. Although early investigators computed average angles of approximately 28° or 29° for the drift of close multiyear pack ice, large drift angles were usually observed with low, rather than high, wind speeds. The relationship between surface wind speed, ice thickness, and drift angle was derived theoretically for the drift of consolidated pack under equilibrium (a balance of forces acting on the ice) conditions, and shows that the drift angle increases with increasing ice thickness and decreasing surface wind speed. See Figure 3307. A slight increase also occurs with higher latitude.

Since the cross-isobar deflection of the surface wind over the oceans is approximately 20°, the deflection of the ice varies, from approximately along the isobars to as much as 70° to the right of the isobars, with low pressure on the left and high pressure on the right in the Northern Hemisphere. The positions of the low and high pressure areas are, of course, reversed in the Southern Hemisphere. The rate of drift depends upon the roughness of the surface and the concentration of the ice. Percentages vary from approximately 0.25 percent to almost 8 percent of the surface wind speed as measured approximately 6 meters above the ice surface. Low concentrations of heavily ridged or hummocked floes drift faster than high concentrations of lightly ridged or hummocked floes with the same wind speed. Sea ice of 8 to 9 tenths concentrations and six tenths hummocking or close multiyear ice will drift at approximately 2 percent of the surface wind speed. Additionally, the response factors of 1 and 5 tenths ice concentrations, respectively, are approximately three times and twice the magnitude of the response factor for 9 tenths ice concentrations with the same extent of surface roughness. Isolated ice floes have been observed to drift as fast as 10 percent to 12 percent of strong surface winds.

The rates at which sea ice drifts have been quantified through empirical observation. The drift angle, however, has been determined theoretically for 10 tenths ice concentration. This relationship presently is extended to the drift of all ice concentrations, due to the lack of basic knowledge of the dynamic forces that act upon, and result in redistribution of sea ice, in the polar regions.

3308. Iceberg Drift
Icebergs extend a considerable distance below the surface and have relatively small “sail areas” compared to their subsurface mass. Therefore, the near-surface current is thought to be primarily responsible for drift; however, observations have shown that wind can be the dominant force that governs iceberg drift at a particular location or time. Also, the current and wind may contribute nearly equally to the resultant drift. Two other major forces which act on a drifting iceberg are the Coriolis force and, to a lesser extent, the pressure gradient force which is caused by gravity owing to a tilt of the sea surface, and is important only for iceberg drift in a major current. Near-surface currents are generated by a variety of factors such as horizontal pressure gradients owing to density variations in the water, rotation of the Earth, gravitational attraction of the Moon, and slope of the sea surface. Not only does wind act directly on an iceberg, it also acts indirectly by generating waves and a surface current in about the same direction as the wind. Because of inertia, an iceberg may continue to move from the influence of wind for some time after the wind stops or changes direction.

The relative influence of currents and winds on the Figure 3307. Ice drift direction for varying wind speed and ice thickness. drift of an iceberg varies according to the direction and magnitude of the forces acting on its sail area and subsurface cross-sectional area. The resultant force therefore involves the proportions of the iceberg above and below the sea surface in relation to the velocity and depth of the current, and the velocity and duration of the wind. Studies tend to show that, generally, where strong currents prevail, the current is dominant. In regions of weak currents, however, winds that blow for a number of hours in a steady direction materially affect the drift of icebergs. Generally, it can be stated that currents tend to have a greater effect on deepdraft icebergs, while winds tend to have a greater effect on shallow-draft icebergs.

As icebergs waste through melting, erosion, and calving, observations indicate the height to draft ratio may approach 1:1 during their last stage of decay, when they are referred to as a dry dock, winged, horned, or pinnacle icebergs. The height to draft ratios found for icebergs in their various stages are presented in Table 3308a. Since wind tends to have a greater effect on shallow than on deep-draft icebergs, the wind can be expected to exert increasing influence on iceberg drift as wastage increases.

Simple equations which precisely define iceberg drift cannot be formulated at present because of the uncertainty in the water and air drag coefficients associated with iceberg motion. Values for these parameters not only vary from iceberg to iceberg, but they probably change for the same iceberg over its period of wastage.

Present investigations utilize an analytical approach, facilitated by computer calculations, in which the air and water drag coefficients are varied within reasonable limits. Combinations of these drag values are then used in several increasingly complex water models that try to duplicate observed iceberg trajectories. The results indicate that with a wind-generated current, Coriolis force, and a uniform wind, but without a gradient current, small and medium icebergs will drift with the percentages of the wind as given in Table 3308b. The drift will be to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

When gradient currents are introduced, trajectories vary considerably depending on the magnitude of the wind and current, and whether they are in the same or opposite direction. When a 1-knot current and wind are in the same direction, drift is to the right of both wind and current with drift angles increasing linearly from approximately 5° at 10 knots to 22° at 60 knots. When the wind and a 1-knot current are in opposite directions, drift is to the left of the current, with the angle increasing from approximately 3° at 10 knots, to 20° at 30 knots, and to 73° at 60 knots. As a limiting case for increasing wind speeds, drift may be approximately normal (to the right) to the wind direction. This indicates that the wind driven current is clearly dominating the drift. In general, the various models used demonstrated that a combination of the wind and current was responsible for the drift of icebergs.

3309. Extent of Ice in the Sea
When an area of sea ice, no matter what form it takes or how it is disposed, is described, it is referred to as pack ice. In both polar regions the pack ice is a very dynamic feature, with wide deviations in its extent dependent upon changing oceanographic and meteorological phenomena. In winter the Arctic pack extends over the entire Arctic Ocean, and for a varying distance outward from it; the limits recede considerably during the warmer summer months. The average positions of the seasonal absolute and mean maximum and minimum extents of sea ice in the Arctic region are plotted in Figure 3309a. Each year a large portion of the ice from the Arctic Ocean moves outward between Greenland and Spitsbergen (Fram Strait) into the North Atlantic Ocean and is replaced by new ice. Because of this constant annual removal and replacement of sea ice, relatively little of the Arctic pack ice is more than 10 years old.

Ice covers a large portion of the Antarctic waters and is probably the greatest single factor contributing to the isolation of the Antarctic Continent. During the austral Iceberg type Height to draft ratio Blocky or tabular 1:5 Rounded or domed 1:4 Picturesque or Greenland (sloping) 1:3 Pinnacled or ridged 1:2 Horned, winged, dry dock, or spired (weathered) 1:1 Table 3308a. Height to draft ratios for various types of icebergs. Wind Speed (knots) Ice Speed/Wind Speed (percent) Drift Angle (degrees) Small Berg Med. Berg Small Berg Med. Berg 10 3.6 2.2 12 69 20 3.8 3.1 14 55 30 4.1 3.4 17 36 40 4.4 3.5 19 33 50 4.5 3.6 23 32 60 4.9 3.7 24 31

Table 3308b. Drift of iceberg as percentage of wind speed.

winter (June through September), ice completely surrounds the continent, forming an almost impassable barrier that extends northward on the average to about 54°S in the Atlantic and to about 62°S in the Pacific. Disintegration of the pack ice during the austral summer months of December through March allows the limits of the ice edge to recede considerably, opening some coastal areas of the Antarctic to navigation. The seasonal absolute and mean maximum and minimum positions of the Antarctic ice limit are shown in Figure 3309b.

Historical information on sea ice conditions for specific localities and time periods can be found in publications of the Naval Ice Center/National Ice Center and the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA). National Ice Center (NIC) publications include sea ice annual atlases (1972 to present for Eastern Arctic, Western Arctic and Antarctica), sea ice climatologies, and forecasting guides. NIC sea ice annual atlases include years 1972 to the present for all Arctic and Antarctic seas. NIC ice climatologies describe multiyear statistics for ice extent and coverage. NIC forecasting guides cover procedures for the production of short-term (daily, weekly), monthly, and seasonal predictions. NIMA publications include sailing directions, which describe localized ice conditions and the effect of ice on polar navigation.

3310. Icebergs in the North Atlantic
Sea level glaciers exist on a number of landmasses bordering the northern seas, including Alaska, Greenland, Svalbard (Spitsbergen), Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa (Franz Josef Land), Novaya Zemlya, and Severnaya Zemlya (Nicholas II Land). Except in Greenland and Franz Josef Land, the rate of calving is relatively slow, and the few icebergs produced melt near their points of formation. Many of those produced along the western coast of Greenland, however, are eventually carried into the shipping lanes of the North Atlantic, where they constitute a major menace to ships. Those calved from Franz Josef Land glaciers drift southwest in the Barents Sea to the vicinity of Bear Island Generally the majority of icebergs produced along the east coast of Greenland remain near their source. However, a small number of bergy bits, growlers, and small icebergs are transported south from this region by the East Greenland Current around Kap Farvel at the southern tip of Greenland and then northward by the West Greenland Current into Davis Strait to the vicinity of 67°N. Relatively few of these icebergs menace shipping, but some are carried

Figure 3309a. Average maximum and minimum extent of Arctic sea ice.

to the south and southeast of Kap Farvel by a counterclockwise current gyre centered near 57°N and 43°W. The main source of the icebergs encountered in the North Atlantic is the west coast of Greenland between 67°N and 76°N, where approximately 10,000–15,000 icebergs are calved each year. In this area there are about 100 lowlying coastal glaciers, 20 of them being the principal producers of icebergs. Of these 20 major glaciers, 2 located in Disko Bugt between 69°N and 70°N are estimated to contribute 28 percent of all icebergs appearing in Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea. The West Greenland Current carries icebergs from this area northward and then westward until they encounter the south flowing Labrador Current. West Greenland icebergs generally spend their first winter locked in the Baffin Bay pack ice; however, a large number can also be found within the sea ice extending along the entire Labrador coast by late winter.

During the next spring and summer they are transported farther southward by the Labrador Current. The general drift patterns of icebergs that are prevalent in the eastern portion of the North American Arctic are shown in Figure 3310a. Observations over a 101-year period show that an average of 479 icebergs per year reach latitudes south of 48°N, with approximately 10 percent of this total carried south of the Grand Banks (43°N) before they melt. Icebergs may be encountered during any part of the year, but in the Grand Banks area they are most numerous during spring. The maximum monthly average of iceberg sightings below 48°N occurs during April, May and June, with May having the highest average of 147.

It has been suggested that the distribution of the Davis Strait-Labrador Sea pack ice influences the melt rate of the icebergs as they drift south. Sea ice will decrease iceberg erosion by damping waves and holding surface water temperatures below 0°C, so as the areal extent of the sea ice increases the icebergs will tend to survive longer. Stronger than average northerly or northeasterly winds during late winter and spring will enhance sea ice drift to the south, which also may lengthen iceberg lifetimes. There are also large inter-annual variations in the number of icebergs calved from Greenland’s glaciers, so the problem of forecasting the length and severity of an iceberg season is exceedingly complex.

Figure 3309b. Average maximum and minimum extent of Antarctic sea ice.

The variation from average conditions is considerable. More than 2,202 icebergs have been sighted south of latitude 48°N in a single year (1984), while in 1966 not a single iceberg was encountered in this area. In the years of 1940 and 1958, only one iceberg was observed south of 48°N. The length of the iceberg “season” as defined by the International Ice Patrol also varies considerably, from a maximum of 203 days in 1992 to the minimum in 1999, when there was no formal ice season. The average length of the ice season is about 130 days. Although this variation has not

Figure 3310a. General drift patterns of icebergs in Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, and Labrador Sea.

been fully explained, it is apparently related to wind and ocean current conditions, to the distribution of pack ice in Davis Strait, and to the amount of pack ice off Labrador. Average iceberg and pack ice limits in this area during May are shown in Figure 3310b. Icebergs have been observed in the vicinity of Bermuda, the Azores, and within 400 to 500 kilometers of Great Britain. Pack ice may also be found in the North Atlantic, some having been brought south by the Labrador Current and some coming through Cabot Strait after having formed in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

3311. The International Ice Patrol
The International Ice Patrol was established in 1914 by the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), held in 1913 as a result of the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912. The Titanic struck an iceberg on its maiden voyage and sank with the loss of 1,513 lives. In accordance with the agreement reached at the SOLAS conventions of 1960 and 1974, the International Ice Patrol is conducted by the U.S. Coast Guard, which is responsible for the observation and dissemination of information concerning ice conditions in the North Atlantic. Information on ice conditions for the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the coastal waters of Newfoundland and Labrador, including the Strait of Belle Isle, is provided by ECAREG Canada (Eastern Canada Traffic System), through any Coast Guard Radio Station, from the month of December through late June. Sea ice data for these areas can also be obtained from the Ice Operations Officer, located at Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, via Sydney, Halifax, or St. John’s marine radio.

During the war years of 1916-18 and 1941-45, the Ice Patrol was suspended. Aircraft were added to the patrol force following World War II, and today perform the majority of the reconnaissance work. During each ice season, aerial reconnaissance surveys are made in the vicinity of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland to determine the southeastern, southern, and southwestern limit of the seaward extent of icebergs. The U.S. Coast Guard aircraft

Figure 3310b. Average iceberg and pack ice limits during the month of May.

use Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) as well as Forward-Looking Airborne Radar (FLAR) to help detect and identify icebergs in this notoriously fog-ridden area. Reports of ice sightings are also requested and collected from ships transiting the Grand Banks area. When reporting ice, vessels are requested to detail the concentration and stage of development of sea ice, number of icebergs, the bearing of the principal sea ice edge, and the present ice situation and trend over the preceding three hours. These five parameters are part of the ICE group of the ship synoptic code which is addressed in more detail in Article 3416 on ice observation. In addition to ice reports, masters who do not issue routine weather reports are urged to make sea surface temperature and weather reports to the Ice Patrol every six hours when within latitudes 40° to 52°N and longitudes 38° to 58°W (the Ice Patrol Operations Area). Ice reports may be sent at no charge using INMARSAT Code 42.

International Ice Patrol activities are directed from an Operations Center at Avery Point, Groton, Connecticut. The Ice Patrol gathers all sightings and puts them into a computer model which analyzes and predicts iceberg drift and deterioration. Due to the large size of the Ice Patrol’s operating area, icebergs are usually seen only once. The model predictions are crucial to setting the limits of all known ice. The fundamental model force balance is between iceberg acceleration and accelerations due to air and water drag, the Coriolis acceleration, and a sea surface slope term. The model is driven primarily by a water current that combines a depth- and time-independent geostrophic (mean) current with a depth- and timedependent current driven by the wind (Ekman flow).

Environmental parameters for the model, including sea surface temperature, wave height and period, and wind, are obtained from the U.S. Navy’s Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (FNMOC) in Monterey, California every 12 hours. The International Ice Patrol also deploys from 12–15 World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) drifting buoys per year, and uses the buoy drifts to alter the climatological mean (geostrophic) currents used by the model in the immediate area of the buoys. The buoy drift data have been archived at the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) and are available for use by researchers. Sea surface temperature, wave height and wave period are the main factors that determine the rate of iceberg deterioration. Ship observations of these variables are extremely important because the accuracy of the deterioration model depends on accurate input data.

The results from the iceberg drift and deterioration model are used to compile bulletins that are issued twice daily during the ice season by radio communications from Boston, Massachusetts; St. John’s, Newfoundland; and other radio stations. Bulletins are also available over INMARSAT. When icebergs are sighted outside the known limits of ice, special safety broadcasts are issued in between the regularly scheduled bulletins. Iceberg positions in the ice bulletins are updated for drift and deterioration at 12- hour intervals. A radio-facsimile chart is also broadcast twice a day throughout the ice season. A summary of broadcast times and frequencies is found in Pub. 117, Radio Navigational Aids, and on the International Ice Patrol Web site, http://www.uscg.mil/lantarea/iip/home.html.

The Ice Patrol, in addition to patrolling possible iceberg areas, conducts oceanographic surveys, maintains up-to-date records of the currents in its area of operation to aid in predicting the drift of icebergs, and studies iceberg conditions in general.

3312. Ice Detection
Safe navigation in the polar seas depends on a number of factors, not the least of which is accurate knowledge of the location and amount of sea ice that lies between the mariner and his destination. Sophisticated electronic equipment, such as radar, sonar, and the visible, infrared, and microwave radiation sensors on board satellites, have added to our ability to detect and thus avoid ice.

As a ship proceeds into higher latitudes, the first ice encountered is likely to be in the form of icebergs, because such large pieces require a longer time to disintegrate. Icebergs can easily be avoided if detected soon enough. The distance at which an iceberg can be seen visually depends upon meteorological visibility, height of the iceberg, source and condition of lighting, and the observer. On a clear day with excellent visibility, a large iceberg might be sighted at a distance of 20 miles. With a low-lying haze around the horizon, this distance will be reduced. In light fog or drizzle this distance is further reduced, down to near zero in heavy fog.

In a dense fog an iceberg may not be perceptible until it is close aboard where it will appear in the form of a luminous, white object if the Sun is shining; or as a dark, somber mass with a narrow streak of blackness at the waterline if the Sun is not shining. If the layer of fog is not too thick, an iceberg may be sighted from aloft sooner than from a point lower on the vessel, but this does not justify omitting a bow lookout. The diffusion of light in a fog will produce a blink, or area of whiteness, above and at the sides of an iceberg which will appear to increase the apparent size of its mass. On dark, clear nights icebergs may be seen at a distance of from 1 to 3 miles, appearing either as white or black objects with occasional light spots where waves break against it. Under such conditions of visibility growlers are a greater menace to vessels; the vessel’s speed should be reduced and a sharp lookout maintained.

The Moon may either help or hinder, depending upon its phase and position relative to ship and iceberg. A full Moon in the direction of the iceberg interferes with its detection, while Moonlight from behind the observer may produce a blink which renders the iceberg visible for a greater distance, as much as 3 or more miles. A clouded sky at night, through which the Moonlight is intermittent, also renders ice detection difficult. A night sky with heavy passing clouds may also dim or obscure any object which has been sighted, and fleecy cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds often may give the appearance of blink from icebergs.

If an iceberg is in the process of disintegration, its presence may be detected by a cracking sound as a piece breaks off, or by a thunderous roar as a large piece falls into the water. These sounds are unlikely to be heard due to shipboard noise. The appearance of small pieces of ice in the water often indicates the presence of an iceberg nearby. In calm weather these pieces may form a curved line with the parent iceberg on the concave side. Some of the pieces broken from an iceberg are themselves large enough to be a menace to ships.

As the ship moves closer towards areas known to contain sea ice, one of the most reliable signs that pack ice is being approached is the absence of swell or wave motion in a fresh breeze or a sudden flattening of the sea, especially from leeward. The observation of icebergs is not a good indication that pack ice will be encountered soon, since icebergs may be found at great distances from pack ice. If the sea ice is approached from windward, it is usually compacted and the edge will be sharply defined. However, if it is approached from leeward, the ice is likely to be loose and somewhat scattered, often in long narrow arms.

Another reliable sign of the approach of pack ice not yet in sight is the appearance of a pattern, or sky map, on the horizon or on the underside of distant, extensive cloud areas, created by the varying amounts of light reflected from different materials on the sea or Earth’s surface. A bright white glare, or snow blink, will be observed above a snow covered surface. When the reflection on the underside of clouds is caused by an accumulation of distant ice, the glare is a little less bright and is referred to as an ice blink. A relatively dark pattern is reflected on the underside of clouds when it is over land that is not snow covered. This is known as a land sky. The darkest pattern will occur when the clouds are above an open water area, and is called a water sky. A mariner experienced in recognizing these sky maps will find them useful in avoiding ice or searching out openings which may permit his vessel to make progress through an ice field.

Another indication of the presence of sea ice is the formation of thick bands of fog over the ice edge, as moisture condenses from warm air when passing over the colder ice. An abrupt change in air or sea temperature or seawater salinity is not a reliable sign of the approach of icebergs or pack ice.

The presence of certain species of animals and birds can also indicate that pack ice is in close proximity. The sighting of walruses, seals, or polar bears in the Arctic should warn the mariner that pack ice is close at hand. In the Antarctic, the usual precursors of sea ice are penguins, terns, fulmars, petrels, and skuas.

Ice presents only about 1/60th of the radar return of a vessel of the same cross sectional area, and has a reflection coefficient of 0.33. But when visibility becomes limited, radar can prove to be a valuable tool. Although many icebergs will be observed visually on clear days before there is a return on the radarscope, radar under bad weather conditions will detect the average iceberg at a range of about 8 to 10 miles.

The intensity of the return is a function of the nature of the iceberg’s exposed surface (slope, surface roughness); however, it is unusual to find an iceberg which will not produce a detectable echo. Ice is not frequency-sensitive; both S- and X-band radars provide the same detectability. The detectability of ice and seawater is almost identical. In spring in the North Atlantic, especially on the Grand Banks and just when the danger from ice is greatest, atmospheric conditions often produce subnormal radar propagation, shortening the range at which ice can be detected. Large, vertical-sided tabular icebergs of the Antarctic and Arctic ice islands are usually detected by radar at ranges of 15 to 30 miles; a range of 37 miles has been reported.

Whereas a large iceberg is almost always detected by radar in time to be avoided, a growler large enough to be a serious menace to a vessel may be lost in the sea return and escape detection. Growlers cannot usually be detected at ranges greater than four miles, and are lost in a sea greater than four feet. If an iceberg or growler is detected by radar, tracking is sometimes necessary to distinguish it from a rock, islet, or another ship.

Radar can be of great assistance to experienced radar observers. Smooth sea ice, like smooth water, returns little or no echo, but small floes of rough, hummocky sea ice capable of inflicting damage to a ship can be detected in a smooth sea at a range of about 2 to 4 miles. The return may be similar to sea return, but the same echoes appear at each sweep. A lead in smooth ice is clearly visible on a radarscope, even though a thin coating of new ice may have formed in the opening. A light covering of snow obliterating many of the features to the eye has little effect upon a radar return. The ranges at which ice can be detected by radar are somewhat dependent upon refraction, which is sometimes quite abnormal in polar regions.

Experience in interpretation is gained through comparing various radar returns with actual observations. The most effective use of radar in ice detection and navigation is constant surveillance by trained and experienced operators.

Echoes from the ship’s whistle or horn may sometimes indicate the presence of icebergs and can give an indication of direction. If the time interval between the sound and its echo is measured, the distance in meters can be determined by multiplying the number of seconds by 168. However, echoes are unreliable because only ice with a large vertical area facing the ship returns enough echo to be heard. Once an echo is heard, a distinct pattern of horn blasts (not a Navigational Rules signal) should be made to confirm that the echo is not another vessel.

At relatively short ranges, sonar is sometimes helpful in locating ice. The initial detection of icebergs may be made at a distance of about 3 miles or more, but usually considerably less. Growlers may be detected at a distance of 1/2 to 2 miles, and even smaller pieces may be detected in time to avoid them. Ice in the polar regions is best detected and observed from the air, either from aircraft or by satellite. Fixedwinged aircraft have been utilized extensively for obtaining detailed aerial ice reconnaissance information since the early 1930’s. Some ships, particularly icebreakers, proceeding into high latitudes carry helicopters, which are invaluable in locating leads and determining the relative navigability of different portions of the ice pack. Ice reports from personnel at Arctic and Antarctic coastal shore stations can also prove valuable to the polar mariner.

The enormous ice reconnaissance capabilities of meteorological satellites were confirmed within hours of the launch by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the first experimental meteorological satellite, TIROS I, on April 1, 1960. With the advent of the polar-orbiting meteorological satellites during the mid and late 1960’s, the U.S. Navy initiated an operational satellite ice reconnaissance program which could observe ice and its

Figure 3312a. Example of satellite imagery with a resolution of 0.9 kilometer.

movement in any region of the globe on a daily basis, depending upon solar illumination. Since then, improvements in satellite sensor technology have provided a capability to make detailed global observations of ice properties under all weather and lighting conditions. The current suite of airborne and satellite sensors employed by the National Ice Center include: aerial reconnaissance including visual and Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR), TIROS AVHRR visual and infrared, Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Operational Linescan System (OLS) visual and infrared, all-weather passive microwave from the DMSP Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) and the ERS-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). Examples of satellite imagery of ice covered waters are shown in Figure 3312a and Figure 3312b.

3313. Operations in Ice
Operations in ice-prone regions necessarily require considerable advanced planning and many more precautionary measures than those taken prior to a typical open ocean voyage. The crew, large or small, of a polar-bound vessel should be thoroughly indoctrinated in the fundamentals of polar operations, utilizing the best information sources available. The subjects covered should include training in ship handling in ice, polar navigation, effects of low temperatures on materials and equipment, damage control procedures, communications problems inherent in polar regions, polar meteorology, sea ice terminology, ice observing and reporting procedures (including classification and codes) and polar survival. Training materials should consist of reports on previous Arctic and Antarctic voyages, sailing directions, ice atlases, training films on polar operations, and U.S. Navy service manuals detailing the recommended procedures to follow during high latitude missions. Various sources of information can be obtained from the Director, National Ice Center, 4251 Suitland Road, Washington, D.C., 20395 and

Figure 3312b. Example of satellite imagery with a resolution of 80 meters.

from the Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, 4201 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22230. The preparation of a vessel for polar operations is of extreme importance and the considerable experience gained from previous operations should be drawn upon to bring the ship to optimum operating condition. At the very least, operations conducted in ice-infested waters require that the vessel’s hull and propulsion system undergo certain modifications.

The bow and waterline of the forward part of the vessel should be heavily reinforced. Similar reinforcement should also be considered for the propulsion spaces of the vessel. Cast iron propellers and those made of a bronze alloy do not possess the strength necessary to operate safely in ice. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that propellers made of these materials be replaced by steel. Other desirable features are the absence of vertical sides, deep placement of the propellers, a blunt bow, metal guards to protect propellers from ice damage, and lifeboats for 150 percent of personnel aboard. The complete list of desirable features depends upon the area of operations, types of ice to be encountered, length of stay in the vicinity of ice, anticipated assistance by icebreakers, and possibly other factors. Strength requirements and the minimum thicknesses deemed necessary for the vessel’s frames and additional plating to be used as reinforcement, as well as other procedures needed to outfit a vessel for ice operations, can be obtained from the American Bureau of Shipping. For a more definitive and complete guide to the ice strengthening of ships, the mariner may desire to consult the procedures outlined in Rules for Ice Strengthening of Ships, from the Board of Navigation, Helsinki, Finland.

Equipment necessary to meet the basic needs of the crew and to insure the successful and safe completion of the polar voyage should not be overlooked. A minimum list of essential items should consist of polar clothing and footwear, 100% u/v protective sunglasses, food, vitamins, medical supplies, fuel, storage batteries, antifreeze, explosives, detonators, fuses, meteorological supplies, and survival kits containing sleeping bags, trail rations, firearms, ammunition, fishing gear, emergency medical supplies, and a repair kit. The vessel’s safety depends largely upon the thoroughness of advance preparations, the alertness and skill of its crew, and their ability to make repairs if damage is incurred. Spare propellers, rudder assemblies, and patch materials, together with the equipment necessary to effect emergency repairs of structural damage should be carried. Examples of repair materials needed include quick setting cement, oakum, canvas, timbers, planks, pieces of steel of varying shapes, welding equipment, clamps, and an assortment of nuts, bolts, washers, screws, and nails. Ice and snow accumulation on the vessel poses a definite capsize hazard. Mallets, baseball bats, ax handles, and scrapers to aid in the removal of heavy accumulations of ice, together with snow shovels and stiff brooms for snow removal should be provided. A live steam line may be useful in removing ice from superstructures. Navigation in polar waters is at best difficult and, during poor conditions, impossible, except using satellite or inertial systems. Environmental conditions encountered in high latitudes such as fog, storms, compass anomalies, atmospheric effects, and, of course, ice, hinder polar operations. Also, deficiencies in the reliability and detail of hydrographic and geographical information presented on polar navigation charts, coupled with a distinct lack of reliable bathymetry, current, and tidal data, add to the problems of polar navigation. Much work is being carried out in polar regions to improve the geodetic control, triangulation, and quality of hydrographic and topographic information necessary for accurate polar charts. However, until this massive task is completed, the only resource open to the polar navigator, especially during periods of poor environmental conditions, is to rely upon the basic principles of navigation and adapt them to unconventional methods when abnormal situations arise.

Upon the approach to pack ice, a careful decision is needed to determine the best action. Often it is possible to go around the ice, rather than through it. Unless the pack is quite loose, this action usually gains rather than loses time. When skirting an ice field or an iceberg, do so to windward, if a choice is available, to avoid projecting tongues of ice or individual pieces that have been blown away from the main body of ice.

When it becomes necessary to enter pack ice, a thorough examination of the distribution and extent of the ice conditions should be made beforehand from the highest possible location. Aircraft (particularly helicopters) and direct satellite readouts are of great value in determining the nature of the ice to be encountered. The most important features to be noted include the location of open water, such as leads and polynyas, which may be manifested by water sky; icebergs; and the presence or absence of both ice under pressure and rotten ice. Some protection may be offered the propeller and rudder assemblies by trimming the vessel down by the stern slightly (not more than 2–3 feet) prior to entering the ice; however, this precaution usually impairs the maneuvering characteristics of most vessels not specifically built for ice breaking.

Selecting the point of entry into the pack should be done with great care; and if the ice boundary consists of closely packed ice or ice under pressure, it is advisable to skirt the edge until a more desirable point of entry is located. Seek areas with low ice concentrations, areas of rotten ice or those containing navigable leads, and if possible enter from leeward on a course perpendicular to the ice edge. It is also advisable to take into consideration the direction and force of the wind, and the set and drift of the prevailing currents when determining the point of entry and the course followed thereafter. Due to wind induced wave action, ice floes close to the periphery of the ice pack will take on a bouncing motion which can be quite hazardous to the hull of thinskinned vessels. In addition, note that pack ice will drift slightly to the right of the true wind in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, and that leads opened by the force of the wind will appear perpendicular to the wind direction. If a suitable entry point cannot be located due to less than favorable conditions, patience may be called for. Unfavorable conditions generally improve over a short period of time by a change in the wind, tide, or sea state.

Once in the pack, always try to work with the ice, not against it, and keep moving, but do not rush. Respect the ice but do not fear it. Proceed at slow speed at first, staying in open water or in areas of weak ice if possible. The vessel’s speed may be safely increased after it has been ascertained how well it handles under the varying ice conditions encountered. It is better to make good progress in the general direction desired than to fight large thick floes in the exact direction to be made good. However, avoid the temptation to proceed far to one side of the intended track; it is almost always better to back out and seek a more penetrable area. During those situations when it becomes necessary to back, always do so with extreme caution and with the rudder amidships. If the ship is stopped by ice, the first command should be “rudder amidships,” given while the screw is still turning. This will help protect the propeller when backing and prevent ice jamming between rudder and hull. If the rudder becomes ice-jammed, man after steering, establish communications, and do not give any helm commands until the rudder is clear. A quick full-ahead burst may clear it. If it does not, try going to “hard rudder” in the same direction slowly while turning full or flank speed ahead.

Ice conditions may change rapidly while a vessel is working in pack ice, necessitating quick maneuvering. Conventional vessels, even if ice strengthened, are not built for ice breaking. The vessel should be conned to first attempt to place it in leads or polynyas, giving due consideration to wind conditions. The age, thickness, and size of ice which can be navigated depends upon the type, size, hull strength, and horsepower of the vessel employed. If contact with an ice floe is unavoidable, never strike it a glancing blow. This maneuver may cause the ship to veer off in a direction which will swing the stern into the ice. If possible, seek weak spots in the floe and hit it head-on at slow speed. Unless the ice is rotten or very young, do not attempt to break through the floe, but rather make an attempt to swing it aside as speed is slowly increased. Keep clear of corners and projecting points of ice, but do so without making sharp turns which may throw the stern against the ice, resulting in a damaged propeller, propeller shaft, or rudder. The use of full rudder in non-emergency situations is not recommended because it may swing either the stern or mid-section of the vessel into the ice. This does not preclude use of alternating full rudder (swinging the rudder) aboard ice-breakers as a technique for penetrating heavy ice.

Offshore winds may open relatively ice free navigable coastal leads, but such leads should not be entered without benefit of icebreaker escort. If it becomes necessary to enter coastal leads, narrow straits, or bays, an alert watch should be maintained since a shift in the wind may force drifting ice down upon the vessel. An increase in wind on the windward side of a prominent point, grounded iceberg, or land ice tongue extending into the sea will also endanger a vessel. It is wiser to seek out leads toward the windward side of the main body of the ice pack. In the event that the vessel is under imminent danger of being trapped close to shore by pack ice, immediately attempt to orient the vessel’s bow seaward. This will help to take advantage of the little maneuvering room available in the open water areas found between ice floes. Work carefully through these areas, easing the ice floes aside while maintaining a close watch on the general movement of the ice pack.

If the vessel is completely halted by pack ice, it is best to keep the rudder amidships, and the propellers turning at slow speed. The wash of the propellers will help to clear ice away from the stern, making it possible to back down safely. When the vessel is stuck fast, an attempt first should be made to free the vessel by going full speed astern. If this maneuver proves ineffective, it may be possible to get the vessel’s stern to move slightly, thereby causing the bow to shift, by quickly shifting the rudder from one side to the other while going full speed ahead. Another attempt at going astern might then free the vessel. The vessel may also be freed by either transferring water from ballast tanks, causing the vessel to list, or by alternately flooding and emptying the fore and aft tanks. A heavy weight swung out on the cargo boom might give the vessel enough list to break free.

If all these methods fail, the utilization of deadmen (2– to 4–meter lengths of timber buried in holes out in the ice and to which a vessel is moored) and ice anchors (a stockless, single fluked hook embedded in the ice) may be helpful. With a deadman or ice anchors attached to the ice astern, the vessel may be warped off the ice by winching while the engines are going full astern. If all the foregoing methods fail, explosives placed in holes cut nearly to the bottom of the ice approximately 10 to 12 meters off the beam of the vessel and detonated while the engines are working full astern might succeed in freeing the vessel. A vessel may also be sawed out of the ice if the air temperature is above the freezing point of seawater.

When a vessel becomes so closely surrounded by ice that all steering control is lost and it is unable to move, it is beset. It may then be carried by the drifting pack into shallow water or areas containing thicker ice or icebergs with their accompanying dangerous underwater projections. If ice forcibly presses itself against the hull, the vessel is said to be nipped, whether or not damage is sustained. When this occurs, the gradually increasing pressure may be capable of holing the vessel’s bottom or crushing the sides. When a vessel is beset or nipped, freedom may be achieved through the careful maneuvering procedures, the physical efforts of the crew, or by the use of explosives similar to those previously detailed. Under severe conditions the mariner’s best ally may be patience since there will be many times when nothing can be done to improve the vessel’s plight until there is a change in meteorological conditions. It may be well to preserve fuel and perform any needed repairs to the vessel and its engines. Damage to the vessel while it is beset is usually attributable to collisions or pressure exerted between the vessel’s hull, propellers, or rudder assembly, and the sharp corners of ice floes. These collisions can be minimized greatly by attempting to align the vessel in such a manner as to insure that the pressure from the surrounding pack ice is distributed as evenly as possible over the hull. This is best accomplished when medium or large ice floes encircle the vessel.

In the vicinity of icebergs, either in or outside of the pack ice, a sharp lookout should be kept and all icebergs given a wide berth. The commanding officers and masters of all vessels, irrespective of their size, should treat all icebergs with great respect. The best locations for lookouts are generally in a crow’s nest, rigged in the foremast or housed in a shelter built specifically for a bow lookout in the eyes of a vessel. Telephone communications between these sites and the navigation bridge on larger vessels will prove invaluable. It is dangerous to approach close to an iceberg of any size because of the possibility of encountering underwater extensions, and because icebergs that are disintegrating may suddenly capsize or readjust their masses to new positions of equilibrium. In periods of low visibility the utmost caution is needed at all times. Vessel speed should be reduced and the watch prepared for quick maneuvering. Radar becomes an effective but not infallible tool, and does not negate the need for trained lookouts. Since icebergs may have from eight to nine-tenths of their masses below the water surface, their drift is generally influenced more by currents than winds, particularly under light wind conditions. The drift of pack ice, on the other hand, is usually dependent upon the wind. Under these conditions, icebergs within the pack may be found moving at a different rate and in a different direction from that of the pack ice. In regions of strong currents, icebergs should always be given a wide berth because they may travel upwind under the influence of contrary currents, breaking heavy pack in their paths and endangering vessels unable to work clear. In these situations, open water will generally be found to leeward of the iceberg, with piled up pack ice to windward. Where currents are weak and a strong wind predominates, similar conditions will be observed as the wind driven ice pack overtakes an iceberg and piles up to windward with an open water area lying to leeward. Under ice, submarine operations require knowledge of prevailing and expected sea ice conditions to ensure maximum operational efficiency and safety. The most important ice features are the frequency and extent of downward projections (bummocks and ice keels) from the underside of the ice canopy (pack ice and enclosed water areas from the point of view of the submariner), the distribution of thin ice areas through which submarines can attempt to surface, and the probable location of the outer pack edge where submarines can remain surfaced during emergencies to rendezvous with surface ship or helicopter units.

Bummocks are the subsurface counterpart of hummocks, and ice keels are similarly related to ridges. When the physical nature of these ice features is considered, it is apparent that ice keels may have considerable horizontal extent, whereas individual bummocks can be expected to have little horizontal extent. In shallow water lanes to the Arctic Basin, such as the Bering Strait and the adjoining portions of the Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea, deep bummocks and ice keels may leave little vertical room for submarine passage. Widely separated bummocks may be circumnavigated but make for a hazardous passage. Extensive ice areas, with numerous bummocks or ice keels which cross the lane may effectively block both surface and submarine passage into the Arctic Basin.

Bummocks and ice keels may extend downward approximately five times their vertical extent above the ice surface. Therefore, observed ridges of approximately 10 meters may extend as much as 50 meters below sea level. Because of the direct relation of the frequency and vertical extent between these surface features and their subsurface counterparts, aircraft ice reconnaissance should be conducted over a planned submarine cruise track before under ice operations commence.

Skylights are thin places (usually less than 1 meter thick) in the ice canopy, and appear from below as relatively light translucent patches in dark surroundings. The undersurface of a skylight is usually flat; not having been subjected to great pressure. Skylights are called large if big enough for a submarine to attempt to surface through them; that is, have a linear extent of at least 120 meters. Skylights smaller than 120 meters are referred to as small. An ice canopy along a submarine’s track that contains a number of large skylights or other features such as leads and polynyas, which permit a submarine to surface more frequently than 10 times in 30 miles, is called friendly ice. An ice canopy containing no large skylights or other features which permit a submarine to surface is called hostile ice.

3314. Great Lakes Ice
Large vessels have been navigating the Great Lakes since the early 1760’s. This large expanse of navigable water has since become one of the world’s busiest waterways. Due to the northern geographical location of the Great Lakes Basin and its susceptibility to Arctic outbreaks of polar air during winter, the formation of ice plays a major disruptive role in the region’s economically vital marine industry. Because of the relatively large size of the five Great Lakes, the ice cover which forms on them is affected by the wind and currents to a greater degree than on smaller lakes.

The Great Lakes’ northern location results in a long ice growth season, which in combination with the effect of wind and current, imparts to their ice covers some of the characteristics and behavior of an Arctic ice pack. Since the five Great Lakes extend over a distance of approximately 800 kilometers in a north-south direction, each lake is influenced differently by various meteorological phenomena. These, in combination with the fact that each lake also possesses different geographical characteristics, affect the extent and distribution of their ice covers. The largest, deepest, and most northern of the Great Lakes is Lake Superior. Initial ice formation normally begins at the end of November or early December in harbors and bays along the north shore, in the western portion of the lake and over the shallow waters of Whitefish Bay. As the season progresses, ice forms and thickens in all coastal areas of the lake perimeter prior to extending offshore. This formation pattern can be attributed to a maximum depth in excess of 400 meters and an associated large heat storage capacity that hinders early ice formation in the center of the lake. During a normal winter, ice not under pressure ranges in thickness from 45–85 centimeters. During severe winters, maximum thicknesses are reported to approach 100 centimeters. Winds and currents acting upon the ice have been known to cause ridging with heights approaching 10 meters. During normal years, maximum ice cover extends over approximately 75% of the lake surface with heaviest ice conditions occurring by early March. This value increases to 95% coverage during severe winters and decreases to less than 20% coverage during a mild winter. Winter navigation is most difficult in the southeastern portion of the lake due to heavy ridging and compression of the ice under the influence of prevailing westerly winds. Breakup normally starts near the end of March with ice in a state of advanced deterioration by the middle of April. Under normal conditions, most of the lake is ice-free by the first week of May.

Lake Michigan extends in a north-south direction over 490 kilometers and possesses the third largest surface area of the five Great Lakes. Depths range from 280 meters in the center of the lake to 40 meters in the shipping lanes through the Straits of Mackinac, and less in passages between island groups. During average years, ice formation first occurs in the shallows of Green Bay and extends eastward along the northern coastal areas into the Straits of Mackinac during the second half of December and early January. Ice formation and accumulation proceeds southward with coastal ice found throughout the southern perimeter of the lake by late January. Normal ice thicknesses range from 10–20 centimeters in the south to 40–60

Figure 3314a. Great Lakes ice cover during a mild winter.

centimeters in the north. During normal years, maximum ice cover extends over approximately 40% of the lake surface with heaviest conditions occurring in late February and early March. Ice coverage increases to 85–90% during a severe winter and decreases to only 10–15% during a mild year. Coverage of 100% occurs, but rarely. Throughout the winter, ice formed in mid-lake areas tends to drift eastward because of prevailing westerly winds. This movement of ice causes an area in the southern central portion of the lake to remain ice-free throughout a normal winter. Extensive ridging of ice around the island areas adjacent to the Straits of Mackinac presents the greatest hazard to year-round navigation on this lake. Due to an extensive length and northsouth orientation, ice formation and deterioration often occur simultaneously in separate regions of this lake. Ice break-up normally begins by early March in southern areas and progresses to the north by early April. Under normal conditions, only 5–10% of the lake surface is ice covered by mid-April with lingering ice in Green Bay and the Straits of Mackinac completely melting by the end of April.

Lake Huron, the second largest of the Great Lakes, has maximum depths of 230 meters in the central basin west of the Bruce peninsula and 170 meters in Georgian Bay. The pattern of ice formation in Lake Huron is similar to the north-south progression described in Lake Michigan. Initial ice formation normally begins in the North Channel and along the eastern coast of Saginaw and Georgian Bays by mid-December. Ice rapidly expands into the western and southern coastal areas before extending out into the deeper portions of the lake by late January. Normal ice thicknesses are 45–75 centimeters. During severe winters, maximum ice thicknesses often exceed 100 centimeters with windrows of ridged ice achieving thicknesses of up to 10 meters.

During normal years, maximum ice cover occurs in late February with 60% coverage in Lake Huron and nearly 95% coverage in Georgian Bay. These values increase to 85–90% in Lake Huron and nearly 100% in Georgian Bay during severe winters. The percent of lake surface area covered by ice decreases to 20–25% for both bodies of water during mild years. During the winter, ice as a hazard to navigation is of greatest concern in the St. Mary’s River/North Channel area and the Straits of Mackinac. Ice break-up normally begins in mid-March in southern coastal areas with melting conditions rapidly spreading northward by early April. A recurring threat to navigation is the southward drift and accumulation of melting ice at the entrance of the St. Clair river. Under normal conditions, the lake becomes ice free by the first week of May.

The shallowest and most southern of the Great Lakes is Lake Erie. Although the maximum depth nears 65 meters in the eastern portion of the lake, an overall mean depth of only 20 meters results in the rapid accumulation of ice over

Figure 3314b. Great Lakes ice cover during a normal winter.

a short period of time with the onset of winter. Initial ice formation begins in the very shallow western portion of the lake in mid-December with ice rapidly extending eastward by early January. The eastern portion of the lake does not normally become ice covered until late January. During a normal winter, ice thicknesses range from 25–45 centimeters in Lake Erie. During the period of rapid ice growth, prevailing winds and currents routinely move existing ice to the northeastern end of the lake. This accumulation of ice under pressure is often characterized by ridging with maximum heights of 8–10 meters. During a severe winter, initial ice formation may begin in late November with maximum seasonal ice thicknesses exceeding 70 centimeters. Since this lake reacts rapidly to changes in air temperature, the variability of percent ice cover is the greatest of the five Great Lakes. During normal years, ice cover extends over approximately 90–95% of the lake surface by mid to late February. This value increases to nearly 100% during a severe winter and decreases to 30% ice coverage during a mild year. Lake St. Clair, on the connecting waterway to Lake Huron, is normally consolidated from the middle of January until early March. Ice break-up normally begins in the western portion of Lake Erie in early March with the lake becoming mostly ice-free by the middle of the month. The exception to this rapid deterioration is the extreme eastern end of the lake where ice often lingers until early May. Lake Ontario has the smallest surface area and second greatest mean depth of the Great Lakes. Depths range from 245 meters in the southeastern portion of the lake to 55 meters in the approaches to the St. Lawrence River. Like Lake Superior, a large mean depth gives Lake Ontario a large heat storage capacity which, in combination with a small surface area, causes Lake Ontario to respond slowly to changing meteorological conditions. As a result, this lake produces the smallest amount of ice cover found on any of the Great Lakes. Initial ice formation normally begins from the middle to late December in the Bay of Quinte and extends to the western coastal shallows near the mouth of the St. Lawrence River by early January. By the first half of February, Lake Ontario is almost 20% ice covered with shore ice lining the perimeter of the lake. During normal years, ice cover extends over approximately 25% of the lake’s surface by the second half of February. During this period of maximum ice coverage, ice is typically concentrated in the northeastern portion of the lake by prevailing westerly winds and currents. Ice coverage can extend over 50–60% of the lake surface during a severe winter and less than 10% during a mild year. Level lake ice thicknesses normally fall within the 20–60 centimeter range with occasional reports exceeding 70 centimeters during severe

Figure 3314c. Great Lakes ice cover during a severe winter.

years. Ice break-up normally begins in early March with the lake generally becoming ice-free by mid-April. The maximum ice cover distribution attained by each of the Great lakes for mild, normal and severe winters is shown in Figure 3314a, Figure 3314b and Figure 3314c. It should be noted that although the average maximum ice cover for each lake appears on the same chart, the actual occurrence of each distribution takes place during the time periods described within the preceding narratives. Information concerning ice analyses and forecasts for the Great Lakes can be obtained from the Director, National Ice Center, 4251 Suitland Road, Washington D.C. 20395 and the National Weather Service Forecast Office located at Cleveland Hopkins International Airport, Cleveland, Ohio, 44135. Ice climatological information can be obtained from the Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, 2205 Commonwealth Blvd., Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48105 (http://www.glerl.noaa.gov).

3315. Importance of Ice Information
Advance knowledge of ice conditions to be encountered and how these conditions will change over specified time periods are invaluable for both the planning and operational phases of a voyage to the polar regions. Branches of the United States Federal Government responsible for providing operational ice products and services for safety of navigation include the Departments of Defense (U.S. Navy), Commerce (NOAA), and Transportation (U.S. Coast Guard). Manpower and resources from these agencies comprise the National Ice Center (NIC), which replaced the Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Center. The NIC provides ice products and services to U.S. Government military and civilian interests. Routine and tailored ice products of the NIC shown in Table 3317 can be separated into two categories: a) analyses which describe current ice conditions and b) forecasts which define the expected changes in the existing ice cover over a specified time period. The content of sea ice analyses is directly dependent upon the planned use of the product, the required level of detail, and the availability of on-site ice observations and/or remotely-sensed data. Ice analyses are produced by blending relatively small numbers of visual ice observations from ships, shore stations and fixed wing aircraft with increasing amounts of remotely sensed data. These data include aircraft and satellite imagery in the visual, infrared, passive microwave and radar bands. The efficient receipt and accurate interpretation of these data are critical to producing a near real-time (24–48 hour old) analysis or “picture” of the ice cover. In general, global and regional scale ice analyses depict ice edge location, ice concentrations within the pack and the ice stages of development or thickness. Local scale ice analyses emphasize the location of thin ice covered or open water leads/polynyas, areas of heavy compression, frequency of ridging, and the presence or absence of dangerous multiyear ice and/or icebergs. The parameters defined in this tactical scale analysis are considered critical to both safety of navigation and the efficient routing of ships through the sea ice cover.

3316. Ice Forecasts and Observations
Sea ice forecasts are routinely separated into four temporal classes: short-term (24–72 hour), weekly (5–7 days), monthly (15–30 days) and seasonal (60–90 days) forecasts. Short-term forecasts are generally paired with local-scale ice analyses and focus on changes in the ice cover based on ice drift, ice formation and ablation, and divergent/convergent processes. Of particular importance are the predicted location of the ice edge and the presence or absence of open water polynyas and coastal/flaw leads. The accurate prediction of the location of these ice features are important for both ice avoidance and ice exploitation purposes.

Similar but with less detail, weekly ice forecasts also emphasize the change in ice edge location and concentration areas within the pack. The National Ice Center presently employs several prediction models to produce both short-term and weekly forecasts. These include empirical models which relate ice drift with geostrophic winds and a coupled dynamic/thermodynamic model called the Polar Ice Prediction System (PIPS). Unlike earlier models, the latter accounts for the effects of ice thickness, concentration, and growth on ice drift. Monthly ice forecasts predict changes in overall ice extent and are based upon the predicted trends in air temperatures, projected paths of transiting low pressure systems, and continuity of ice conditions. Seasonal or 90 day ice forecasts predict seasonal ice severity and the projected impact on annual shipping operations. Of particular interest to the National Ice Center are seasonal forecasts for the Alaskan North Slope, Baffin Bay for the annual resupply of Thule, Greenland, and Ross Sea/McMurdo Sound in Antarctica. Seasonal forecasts are also important to Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Seaway shipping interests.

Ice services provided to U.S. Government agencies upon request include aerial reconnaissance for polar shipping operations, ship visits for operational briefing and training, and optimum track ship routing (OTSR) recommendations through ice-infested seas. Commercial operations interested in ice products may obtain routinely produced ice products from the National Ice Center as well as ice analyses and forecasts for Alaskan waters from the National Weather Service Forecast Office in Anchorage, Alaska. Specific information on request procedures, types of ice products, ice services, methods of product dissemination and ship weather support is contained in the publication “Environmental Services for Polar Operations” prepared and distributed by the Director, National Ice Center, 4251 Suitland Road, Washington, D.C., 20395.

The U.S. Coast Guard has an additional responsibility, separate from the National Ice Center, for providing icebreaker support for polar operations and the administration and operations of the International Ice Patrol (IIP). Inquiries for further information on these subjects should be sent to Commandant (G–OPN–1), 2100 Second Street S.W., Washington D.C. 20593.

Other countries which provide sea ice information services are as follows: Arctic – Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Japan (Seas of Okhotsk, Japan and Bo Hai), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United Kingdom; Antarctic – Argentina, Australia, Chile, Germany, Japan, and Russia; and Baltic – Finland, Germany, Sweden and Russia. Except for the United States, the ice information services of all countries place specific focus upon ice conditions in territorial seas or waters adjacent to claims on the Antarctic continent. The National Ice Center of the United States is the only organization which provides global ice products and services. Names and locations of foreign sea ice service organizations can be found in “Sea Ice Information Services in the World,” WMO Publication No. 574.

Mariners operating in and around sea ice can contribute substantially to increasing the knowledge of synoptic ice conditions, and therefore the accuracy of subsequent ice products by routinely taking and distributing ice observations. The code normally used by personnel trained only to take meteorological observations consists of a five character group appended to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) weather reporting code: FM 13–X SHIP –Report of Surface Observation from a Sea Station. The five digit ICE group has the following format: ICE + c$i$s$i$b$i$D$i$z$i$. In general, the symbols represent:

The complete format and tables for the code are described in the WMO publication “Manual on Codes”, Volume 1, WMO No. 306. This publication is available from the Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, or on the Web at: http://www.wmo.ch/.

A more complete and detailed reporting code (ICEOB) has been in use since 1972 by vessels reporting to the U.S. National Ice Center. 1993 revisions to this code and the procedures for use are described in the “Ice Observation Handbook” prepared and distributed by the Director, National Ice Center, 4251 Suitland Road, Washington D.C., 20395.

All ice observation codes make use of special nomenclature which is precisely defined in several languages by the WMO publication “Sea Ice Nomenclature”, WMO No. 259, TP 145. This publication, available from the Secretariat of the WMO, contains descriptive definitions along with photography of most ice features. This publication is very useful for vessels planning to submit ice observations.

3317. Distribution of Ice Products and Services
The following is intended as a brief overview of the distribution methods for NIC products and services. For detailed information the user should consult the publications discussed in Article 3316 or refer specific inquiries to Director, National Ice Center, 4251 Suitland Road, FOB #4, Room 2301, Washington, D.C. 20395 or call (301) 763–1111 or –2000. The Web address is http://www.natice.noaa.gov/home.htm.

Facsimile inquiries can be phoned to (301) 763–1366 and will generally be answered by mail, therefore addresses must be included. NIC ice product distribution methods are as follows:
 * 1) Autopolling: Customer-originated menu-driven facsimile product distribution system. Call (301) 763–3190/3191 for menu directions or (301) 763–5972 for assignment of Personal Identification Number (PIN).
 * 2) Autodin: Alphanumeric message transmission to U.S. Government organizations or vessels. Address is NAVICECEN Suitland MD.
 * 3) OMNET/SCIENCENET: electronic mail and bulletin board run by OMNET, Inc. (617) 265–9230. Product request messages may be sent to mailbox NATIONAL.ICE.CTR. Ice products are routinely posted on bulletin board SEA.ICE.
 * 4) INTERNET: Product requests may be forwarded to electronic mail address which is available by request from the NIC at (301) 763–5972.
 * 5) Mail Subscription: For weekly Arctic and Antarctic sea ice analysis charts from the National Climatic Data Center, NESDIS, NOAA, 37 Battery Park Ave., Asheville, NC, 28801–2733. Call (704) 271–4800 with requests for ice products. The NESDIS Web address is http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov.
 * 6) Mail: Annual ice atlases and multiyear ice climatologies are available either from the National Ice Center (if in stock) or from the National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA, 22161, on the Web at http://www.ntis.gov. Call (703) 487–4600 for sales service desk. Digital files (in SIGRID format) of weekly NIC ice analyses may be obtained from the National Snow and Ice Data Center, CIRES, Box 449, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, on the Web at http://nsidc.org. Call (303) 492–5171 for information.

Table 3317. Products produced by National Ice Center.