Physical Geography Of The Sea 1855/2

'''An Illustration, § 60. — Best Fish in cold Water, 65. — The Sea a Part of a grand Machine, 67. — Influence of the Gulf Stream upon the Meteorology of the Sea: It is a “Weather Breeder,” 69. — Dampness of Climate of England due to it, 70. — The Pole of Maximum Cold, 71. — Gales of the Gulf Stream, 72. — The Wreck of the San Francisco, 73. — Influence of the Gulf Stream upon Commerce and Navigation: Used as a Landmark, 77. — The first Description of it, 78. — Thermal Navigation, 81.'''

PAGE 48       THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. flared out so as to present a large cooling surface. Here the circulation of the atmosphere is arranged by nature; and it is such that the warmth thus conveyed into this warm-air chamber of mid-ocean is taken up by the genial west winds, and dispensed, in the most benign manner, throughout Great Britain and the west of Europe. 61. The maximum temperature of the water — heated air-chamber of the Observatory is about 90º. The maximum temperature of the Gulf Stream is 86º, or about 9º above the ocean temperature due the latitude. Increasing its latitude 10º, it loses but 2º of temperature; and, after having run three thousand miles toward the north, it still preserves, even in winter, the heat of summer. With this temperature, it crosses the 40th degree of north latitude, and there, overflowing its liquid banks, it spreads itself out for thousands of square leagues over the cold waters around, and covers the ocean with a mantle of warmth that serves so much to mitigate in Europe the rigors of winter. Moving now more slowly, but dispensing its genial influences more freely, it finally meets the British Islands. By these it is divided (Plate IX.), one part going into the polar basin of Spitzbergen, the other entering the Bay of Biscay, but each with a warmth considerably above the ocean temperature. Such an immense volume of heated water can not fail to carry with it beyond the seas a mild and moist atmosphere. And this it is which so much softens climate there. 62. We know not, except approximately in one or two places, what the depth or the under temperature of the Gulf Stream may be; but assuming the temperature and velocity at the depth of two hundred fathoms to be those of the surface, and taking the well-known difference between the capacity of air and of water for specific heat as the argument, a simple calculation will show that the quantity of heat discharged over the Atlantic from the waters of the Gulf Stream in a winter’s day would be sufficient to raise the whole column of atmosphere that rests upon France and the British Islands from the freezing point to summer heat. Every west wind that blows crosses the stream on its way to Europe, and carries with it a portion of this heat to temper there the northern winds of winter. It is the influence of this stream upon climate that makes Erin the “Emerald Isle of the Sea,” PAGE 49 INFLUENCE OF THE GULF STREAM UPON CLIMATES and that clothes the shores of Albion in evergreen robes; while in the same latitude, on this side, the coasts of Labrador are fast bound in fetters of ice. In a valuable paper on currents, [11] Mr. Redfield states, that in 1831 the harbor of St. John’s, Newfoundland, was closed with ice as late as the month of June; yet who ever heard of the port of Liverpool, on the other side, though 2º further north, being closed with ice, even in the dead of winter? 63. The Thermal Chart (Plate IV.) shows this. The isothermal lines of 60º, 50º, &c., starting off from the parallel of 40º near the coasts of the United States, run off in a northeastwardly direction, showing the same oceanic temperature on the European side of the Atlantic in latitude 55º or 60º, that we have on the western side in latitude 40º. Scott, in one of his beautiful novels, tells us that the ponds in the Orkneys (latitude near 60º), are not frozen in winter. The people there owe their soft climate to this grand heating apparatus, for drift-wood from the West Indies is occasionally cast ashore there by the Gulf Stream. 64. Nor do the beneficial influences of this stream upon climate end here. The West Indian Archipelago is encompassed on one side by its chain of islands, and on the other by the Cordilleras of the Andes contracting with the Isthmus of Darien, and stretching themselves out over the plains of Central America and Mexico. Beginning on the summit of this range, we leave the regions of perpetual snow, and descend first into the tierra templada, and then into the tierra caliente, or burning land. Descending still lower, we reach both the level and the surface of the Mexican seas, where, were it not for this beautiful and benign system of aqueous circulation, the peculiar features of the surrounding country assure us we should have the hottest, if not the most pestilential climate in the world. As the waters in these two caldrons become heated, they are borne off by the Gulf Stream, and are replaced by cooler currents through the Caribbean Sea; the surface water, as it enters here, being 3º or 4º, and that in depth 40º cooler than when it escapes from the Gulf. Taking only this dif * American Journal of Science, vol. xlv., p. 293. t Temperature of the Caribbean Sea (from the journals of Mr. Dunsterville): Surface temperature, 83º September; 84º July; 830 — 86 — Mosquito Coast. Temperature in depth, 48º, 240 fathoms; 43º, 386 fathoms; 42º, 450 fathoms; 43º, 500 fathoms. PAGE 50 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. In surface temperature as an index of the heat accumulated there, a simple calculation will show that the quantity of specific heat daily carried off by the Gulf Stream from those regions, and discharged over the Atlantic, is sufficient to raise mountains of iron from zero to the melting point, and to keep in flow from them a molten stream of metal greater in volume than the waters daily discharged from the Mississippi River. Who, therefore, can calculate the benign influence of this wonderful current upon the climate of the South? In the pursuit of this subject, the mind is led from nature up to the Great Architect of nature; and what mind will the study of this subject not fill with profitable emotions? Unchanged and unchanging alone, of all created things, the ocean is the great emblem of its everlasting Creator. “He treadeth upon the waves of the sea,” and is seen in the wonders of the deep. Yea, “He calleth for its waters, and poureth them out upon the face of the earth.” In obedience to this call, the aqueous portion of our planet preserves its beautiful system of circulation. By it heat and warmth are dispensed to the extra-tropical regions; clouds and rain are sent to refresh the dry land; and by it cooling streams are brought from Polar Seas to temper the heat of the torrid zone. At the depth of two hundred and forty fathoms, the temperature of the currents setting into the Caribbean Sea has been found as low as 48º, while that of the surface was 85º. Another cast with three hundred and eighty-six fathoms gave 43º below against 83º at the surface. The hurricanes of those regions agitate the sea to great depths; that of 1780 tore rocks up from the bottom in seven fathoms, and cast them on shore. They therefore can not fail to bring to the surface portions of the cooler water below. At the very bottom of the Gulf Stream, when its surface temperature was 80º, the deep sea thermometer of the Coast Survey has recorded temperatures as low as 38º Fahrenheit. These cold waters doubtless come down from the north to replace the warm water sent through the Gulf Stream to moderate the cold of Spitzbergen; for within the Arctic Circle, the temperature at corresponding depths off the shores of that island is only one degree colder than in the Caribbean Sea, while on the coasts of Labrador the temperature in depth is said to be 25º, or 7º below the melting point of fresh water. Captain Scoresby relates, 50 PAGE 51 INFLUENCE OF THE GULF STREAM UPON CLIMATES. that on the coast of Greenland, in latitude 72º, the temperature of the air was 42º; of the water, 34º; and 29º at the depth of one hundred and eighteen fathoms. He there found a current setting to the south, and bearing with it this extremely cold water, with vast numbers of icebergs, whose centres, perhaps, were far below zero. It would be curious to ascertain the routes of these under currents on their way to the tropical regions, which they are intended to cool. One has been found at the equator two hundred miles broad and 23º colder than the surface water. Unless the land or shoals intervene, it no doubt comes down in a spiral curve, approaching the great circle. 65. Perhaps the best indication as to these cold currents may be derived from the fish of the sea. The whales first pointed out the existence of the Gulf Stream by avoiding its warm waters. Along our own coasts, all those delicate animals and marine productions which delight in warmer waters are wanting; thus indicating, by their absence, the cold current from the north now known to exist there. In the genial warmth of the sea about the Bermudas on one hand, and Africa on the other, we find, in great abundance, those delicate shell-fish and coral formations which are altogether wanting in the same latitudes along the shores of South Carolina. The same obtains in the west coast of South America; for there the cold current almost reaches the line before the first sprig of coral is found to grow. A few years ago, great numbers of bonita and albercore — tropical fish — following the Gulf Stream, entered the English Channel, and alarmed the fishermen of Cornwall and Devonshire by the havoc which they created among the pilchards there. It may well be questioned if our Atlantic cities and towns do not owe their excellent fish-markets, as well as our watering-places their refreshing sea-bathing in summer, to this stream of cold water. The temperature of the Mediterranean is 4º or 5º above the ocean temperature of the same latitude, and the fish there are very indifferent. On the other hand, the temperature along our coast is several degrees below that of the ocean, and from Maine to Florida our tables are supplied with the most excellent of fish. The sheepshead, so much esteemed in Virginia and the Carolinas, when taken on the warm coral banks of the Bahamas, loses its flavor, and is held in no esteem. The same is the case with other fish: when PAGE 52 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. taken in the cold water of that coast, they have a delicious flavor and are highly esteemed; but when taken in the warm water on the other edge of the Gulf Stream, though but a few miles distant, their flesh is soft and unfit for the table. The temperature of the water at the Balize reaches 90º. The fish taken there are not to be compared with those of the same latitude in this cold stream. New Orleans therefore resorts to the cool waters on the Florida coasts for her choicest fish. The same is the case in the Pacific. A current of cold water from the south sweeps the shores of Chili, Peru, and Columbia, and reaches the Gallipagos Islands under the line. Throughout this whole distance, the world does not afford a more abundant or excellent supply of fish. Yet out in the Pacific, at the Society Islands, where coral abounds, and the water preserves a higher temperature, the fish, though they vie in gorgeousness of coloring with the birds, and plants, and insects of the tropics, are held in no esteem as an article of food. I have known sailors, even after long voyages, still to prefer their salt beef and pork to a mess of fish taken there. The few facts which we hive bearing upon this subject seem to suggest it as a point of the inquiry to be made, whether the habitat of certain fish does not indicate the temperature of the water; and whether these cold and warm currents of the ocean do not constitute the great highways through which migratory fishes travel from one region to another. Navigators have often met with vast numbers of young sea nettles (meduse) drifting along with the Gulf Stream. They are known to constitute the principal food for the whale; but whither bound by this route has caused much curious speculation, for it is well known that the habits of the right whale are averse to the warm waters of this stream. An intelligent sea-captain informs me that, two or three years ago, in the Gulf Stream on the coast of Florida, he fell in with such a “school of young sea-nettles as had never before been heard of.” The sea was covered with them for many leagues. He likened them, in appearance on the water, to acorns floating on a stream; but they were so thick as to completely cover the sea. He was bound to England, and was five or six days in sailing through them. In about sixty days afterward, on his return, he fell in with the same school off the Western Islands, and here he was three or four days in passing them PAGE 53 INFLUENCE OF THE GULF STREAM UPON CLIMATES. again. He recognized them as the same, for he had never before seen any like them; and on both occasions he frequently hauled up buckets full and examined them. Now the Western Islands is the great place of resort for whales; and at first there is something curious to us in the idea that the Gulf of Mexico is the harvest field, and the Gulf Stream the gleaner which collects the fruitage planted there, and conveys it thousands of miles off to the hungry whale at sea. But how perfectly in unison is it with the kind and providential care of that great and good Being which feeds the young ravens when they cry, and caters for the sparrow! 66 The sea has its climates as well as the land. They both change with the latitude; but one varies with the elevation above, the other with the depression below the sea level. Each is regulated by circulation; but the regulators are, on the one hand, winds; on the other, currents. 67. The inhabitants of the ocean are as much the creatures of climate as are those of the dry land; for the same Almighty hand which decked the lily and cares for the sparrow, fashioned also the pearl and feeds the great whale. Whether of the land or the sea, they are all his creatures, subjects to his laws, and agents in his economy. The sea, therefore, we infer, has its offices and duties to perform; so may we infer, have its currents, and so, too, its inhabitants; consequently, he who undertakes to study its phenomena, must cease to regard it as a waste of waters. He must look upon it as a part of the exquisite machinery by which the harmonies of nature are preserved, and then he will begin to perceive the developments of order and the evidences of design which make it a most beautiful and interesting subject for contemplation. 68. To one who has never studied the mechanism of a watch, its main-spring or the balance-wheel is a mere piece of metal. He may have looked at the face of the watch, and, while he admires the motion of its hands, and the time it keeps, or the tune it plays, he may have wondered in idle amazement as to the character of the machinery which is concealed within. Take it to pieces, and show him each part separately; he will recognize neither design, nor adaptation, nor relation between them; but put them together, set them to work, point out the offices of each spring, wheel, and cog, explain their movements, and then show him the result; now he PAGE 54 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. perceives that it is all one design; that, notwithstanding the number of parts, their diverse forms and various offices, and the agents concerned, the whole piece is of one thought, the expression of one idea. He now perceives that when the main-spring was fashioned and tempered, its relation to all the other parts must have been considered; that the cogs on this wheel are cut and regulated — adapted — to the rachets on that, &c.; and his conclusion will be, that such a piece of mechanism could not have been produced by chance; the adaptation of the parts is such as to show it to be according to design, and obedient to the will of one intelligence. So, too, when one looks out upon the face of this beautiful world, he may admire the lovely scene, but his admiration can never grow into adoration unless he will take the trouble to look behind and study, in some of its details at least, the exquisite system of machinery by which such beautiful results are accomplished. To shim who does this, the sea, with its physical geography, becomes as the main spring of a watch; its waters, and its currents, and its salts, and its inhabitants, with their adaptations, as balance-wheels, cogs and pinions, and jewels. Thus he perceives that they, too, are according to design; that they are the expression of One Thought, a unity with harmonies which One Intelligence, and One Intelligence alone, could utter. And when he has arrived at this point, then he feels that the study of the sea, in its physical aspect, is truly sublime. It elevates the mind and ennobles the man. The Gulf Stream is now no longer, therefore, to be regarded by such an one merely as an immense current of warm water running across the ocean, but as a balance-wheel — a part of that grand machinery by which air and water are adapted to each other, and by which this earth itself is adapted to the well-being of its inhabitants — of the flora which deck, and the fauna which enliven its surface. 69. Let us therefore consider the influence of the Gulf Stream upon the meteorology of the ocean. To use a sailor expression, the Gulf Stream is the great “weather breeder” of the North Atlantic Ocean. The most furious gales of wind sweep along with it; and the fogs of Newfoundland, which so much endanger navigation in winter, doubtless owe their existence to the presence, in that cold sea, of immense volumes of warm water brought by the Gulf Stream. Sir Philip Brooke PAGE 55 INFLUENCE OF THE GULF STREAM UPON CLIMATES. found the air on each side of it at the freezing point, while that of its waters was 80º. “The heavy, warm, damp air over the current produced great irregularities in his chronometers.” The excess of heat daily brought into such a region by the waters of the Gulf Stream would, if suddenly stricken from them, be sufficient to make the column of superincumbent atmosphere hotter than melted iron. With such an element of atmospherical disturbance in its bosom, we might expect storms of the most violent kind to accompany it in its course. Accordingly, the most terrific that rage on the ocean have been known to spend their fury in and near its borders. Our nautical works tell us of a storm which forced this stream back to its sources, and piled up the water in the Gulf to the height of thirty feet. The Ledbury Snow attempted to ride it out. When it abated, she found herself high up on the dry land, and discovered that she had let go her anchor among the tree tops on Elliott’s Key. The Florida Keys were inundated many feet, and, it is said, the scene presented in the Gulf Stream was never surpassed in awful sublimity on the ocean. The water thus dammed up is said to have rushed out with wonderful velocity against the fury of the gale, producing a sea that beggared description. The "Great Hurricane" of 1780 commenced at Barbadoes. In it, the bark was blown from the trees, and the fruits of the earth destroyed; the very bottom and depths of the sea were uprooted, and the waves rose to such a height that forts and castles were washed away, and their great guns carried about in the air; houses were blown down, ships were wrecked, and the bodies of men and beasts lifted up above the earth and dashed to pieces in the storm. At the different islands, not less than twenty thousand persons lost their lives on shore, while farther to the north, the “Sterling Castle” and the “Dover Castle,” men-of-war, were wrecked at sea, and fifty sail driven on shore at the Bermudas. Several years ago, the British Admiralty set on foot inquiries as to the cause of the storms in certain parts of the Atlantic, which so often rage with disastrous effects to navigation. The result may be summed up in the conclusion to which the investigation led: that they are occasioned by the irregularity between the temperature of the Gulf Stream and of the neighboring regions, both in the air and water. PAGE 55 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. 70. The habitual dampness of the climate of the British Islands, as well as the occasional dampness of that along the Atlantic coasts of the United States when easterly winds prevail, is attributable also to the Gulf Stream. They come to us loaded with vapors gathered from its warm and smoking waters. It carries the temperature of summer, even in the dead of winter, as far north as the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. 71. One of the poles of maximum cold is, according to theory, situated in latitude 80º north, longitude 100º west. It is distant but little more than two thousand miles, in a northwestwardly direction, from the summer-heated waters of this stream. This proximity of extremes of greatest cold and summer heat, will, as observations are multiplied and discussed, be probably found to have much to do with the storms that rage with such fury on the left side of the Gulf Stream. 72. I am not prepared to maintain that the Gulf Stream is really the “Storm King” of the Atlantic, which has power to control the march of every gale that is raised there; but the course of many gales has been traced from the place of their origin directly to the Gulf Stream. Gales that take their rise on the coast of Africa, and even as far down on that side as the parallel of 10º or 15º north latitude, have, it has been shown by an examination of log-books, made straight for the Gulf Stream; joining it, they have then been known to turn about, and, traveling with this stream, to recross the Atlantic, and so reach the shores of Europe. In this way the tracks of storms have been traced out and followed for a week or ten days. Their path is marked by wreck and disaster. At the meeting of the American Association for the advancement of Science in 1854, Mr. Redfield mentioned one which he had traced out, and in which no less than seventy odd vessels had been wrecked, dismasted, or damaged. Plate X. was prepared by Lieutenant B. S. Porter, from data furnished by the log-books at the Observatory. It represents one of these storms that commenced in August, 1848. It commenced more than a thousand miles from the Gulf Stream, made a straight course for it, and traveled with it for many days. The dark shading shows the space covered by the gale, and the white line in the middle shows the axis of the gale, or the line of minimum barometric pressure. PAGE 57 INFLUENCE OF THE GULF STREAM UPON CLIMATES There are many other instances of similar gales. Now what should attract these terrific storms to the Gulf Stream? Sailors dread storms in the Gulf Stream more than they do in any other part of the ocean. It is not the fury of the storm alone that they dread, but it is the “ugly sea” which these storms raise. The current of the stream running in one direction, and the wind blowing in another, creates a sea that is often frightful. In the month of December, 1853, the fine new steam-ship San Francisco sailed from New York with a regiment of United States troops on board, bound around Cape Horn for California. She was overtaken, while crossing the Gulf Stream, by a gale of wind, in which she was terribly crippled. Her decks were swept, and by one single blow of those terrible seas that the storms there raise, one hundred and seventy-nine souls, officers and soldiers, were washed overboard and drowned. The day after this disaster she was seen by one vessel, and again the next day, December 26th, by another, but neither of them could render her any assistance. When they arrived in the United States and reported what they had seen, the most painful apprehensions were entertained by friends for the safety of those on board. Vessels were sent out to search for and relieve her. But which way should these vessels go? where should they look? An appeal was made to know what light the system of researches carried on at the National Observatory concerning winds and currents could throw upon the subject. 73. The materials that had been discussed were examined, and a chart was prepared to show the course of the Gulf Stream at that season of the year. (See the limits of the Gulf Stream for March, Plate VI.) Upon the supposition that the steamer had been completely disabled, the lines ab were drawn to define the limits of her drift. Between these two lines, it was said, the steamer, if she could neither steam nor sail after the gale, had drifted. By request, I prepared instructions for two revenue cutters that were sent to search for her. One of them, being at New London, was told to go along the dotted track leading to c, expecting thereby to keep inside of the line along which the steamer had PAGE 58 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. drifted, with the view of intercepting and speaking homeward bound vessels that might have seen the wreck. The cutter was to proceed to c, where she might expect to fall in with the line of drift taken by the steamer. The last that was seen of that ill-fated vessel. So, if the cutter had been in time, she had instructions that would have taken her in sight of the object of her search. It is true that, before the cutter sailed, the Kilby, the Three Bells, and the Antarctic, unknown to anxious friends at home, had fallen in with and relieved the wreck; but that does not detract from the system of observations, of the results of which, and their practical application, it is the object of this work to treat. A beautiful illustration of their usefulness is the fact that, though the bark Kilby lost sight of the wreck at night, and the next morning did not know which way to look for it, and could not find it, yet, by a system of philosophical deduction, we on shore could point out the whereabouts of the disabled steamer so closely, that vessels could be directed to look for her exactly where she was to be seen. 74. These storms, for which the Gulf Stream has such attraction, and over which it seems to exercise so much control, are said to be, for the most part, whirlwinds. All boys are familiar with miniature whirlwinds on shore. They are seen, especially in the autumn, sweeping along the roads and streets, raising columns of dust, leaves, &c., which rise up like inverted cones in the air, and gyrate about the centre or axis of the storm. Thus, while the axis, and the dust, and the leaves, and all those things which mark the course of the whirlwind, are traveling in one direction, it may be seen that the wind is blowing around this axis in all directions. Just so with some of these Gulf Stream storms. That represented on Plate X. is such a one. It was a rotary storm. Mr. Piddington, an eminent meteorologist of Calcutta, calls them Cyclones. 75. Now, what should make these storms travel toward the Gulf Stream, and then, joining it, travel along with its current? It is the high temperature of its waters, say mariners. But why, or wherefore, should the spirits of the storm obey in this manner the influence of these high temperatures, philosophers have not been able to explain. PAGE 59 INFLUENCE OF THE GULF STREAM UPON COMMERCE. 76. The influence of the Gulf Stream upon commerce and navigation. Formerly the Gulf Stream controlled commerce across the Atlantic by governing vessels in their routes through this ocean to a greater extent than it does now, and simply for the reason that ships are faster, instruments better, and navigators are more skillful now than formerly they were. Up to the close of the last century, the navigator guessed as much as he calculated the place of his ship: vessels from Europe to Boston frequently made New York, and thought the land-fall by no means bad. Chronometers, now so accurate, were then an experiment. The Nautical Ephemeris itself was faulty, and gave tables which involved errors of thirty miles in the longitude. The instruments of navigation erred by degrees quite as much as they now do by minutes; for the rude “cross staff” and “back staff,” the “sea-ring” and “mariner’s bow,” had not yet given place to the nicer sextant and circle of reflection of the present day. Instances are numerous of vessels navigating the Atlantic in those times being 6º, 80, and even 10º of longitude out of their reckoning in as many days from port. 77. Though navigators had been in the habit of crossing and recrossing the Gulf Stream almost daily for three centuries, it never occurred to them to make use of it as a means of giving them their longitude, and of warning them of their approach to the shores of this continent. Dr. Franklin was the first to suggest this use of it. The contrast afforded by the temperature of its waters and that of the sea between the Stream and the shores of America was striking. The dividing line between the warm and the cool waters was sharp (§ 2); and this dividing line, especially that on the western side of the stream, never changed its position as much in longitude as mariners erred in their reckoning. 78. When he was in London in 1770, he happened to be consulted as to a memorial which the Board of Customs at Boston sent to the Lords of the Treasury, stating that the Falmouth packets were generally a fortnight longer to Boston than common traders were from London to Providence, Rhode Island. PAGE 60 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. They therefore asked that the Falmouth packets might be sent to Providence instead of to Boston. This appeared strange to the doctor, for London was much farther than Falmouth, and from Falmouth the routes were the same, and the difference should have been the other way. He, however, consulted Captain Folger, a Nantucket whaler, who chanced to be in London also; the fisherman explained to him that the difference arose from the circumstance that the Rhode Island captains were acquainted with the Gulf Stream, while those of the English packets were, not. The latter kept in it, and were set back sixty or seventy miles a day, while the former avoided it altogether. He had been made acquainted with it by the many whales which were found on either side of it, but never in it (§ 65). — At the request of the doctor, he then traced on a chart the course of this stream from the Straits of Florida. The doctor had it engraved at Tower Hill, and sent copies of it to the Falmouth captains, who paid no attention to it. The course of the Gulf Stream, as laid down by that fisherman from his general recollection of it, has been retained and quoted on the charts for navigation, we may say, until the present day. But the investigations of which we are treating are beginning to throw more light upon this subject; they are giving us more correct knowledge in every respect with regard to it, and to many other new and striking features in the physical geography of the sea. 79. No part of the world affords a more difficult or dangerous navigation than the approaches of our northern coast in winter. Before the warmth of the Gulf Stream was known, a voyage at this season from Europe to New England, New York, and even to the Capes of the Delaware or Chesapeake, was many times more trying, difficult, and dangerous than it now is. In making this part of the coast, vessels are frequently met by snow-storms and gales which mock the seaman’s strength and set at naught his skill. In a little while his bark becomes a mass of ice; with her crew frosted and helpless, she remains obedient only to her helm, and is kept away for the Gulf Stream. After a few hours’ run, she reaches its edge, and almost at the next bound passes from the midst of winter into a sea at summer heat. Now the ice disappears from her apparel; the sailor bathes his stiffened limbs in tepid waters; feeling himself invigorated and refreshed with the bi genial warmth about him, he realizes, out there at sea, the fable of Antaeus and his mother Earth. PAGE 61 INFLUENCE OF THE GULF STREAM UPON COMMERCE He rises up and attempts to make his port again, and is again as rudely met and beat back from the northwest; but each time that he is driven off from the contest, he comes forth from this stream, like the ancient son of Neptune, stronger and stronger, until, after many days, his freshened strength prevails, and he at last triumphs and enters his haven in safety; though in this contest he sometimes falls to rise no more, for it is often terrible. Many ships annually founder in these gales; and I might name instances, for they are not uncommon, in which vessels bound to Norfolk or Baltimore, with their crews enervated in tropical climates, have encountered, as far down as the Capes of Virginia, snow-storms that have driven them back into the Gulf Stream time and again, and have kept them out for forty, fifty, and even for sixty days, trying to make an anchorage. 80. Nevertheless, the presence of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, with their summer heat in mid-winter, off the shores of New England, is a great boon to navigation. At this season of the year especially, the number of wrecks and the loss of life along the Atlantic sea-front are frightful. The month’s average of wrecks has been as high as three a day. How many escape by seeking refuge from the cold in the warm waters of the Gulf Stream is matter of conjecture. Suffice it to say, that before their temperature was known, vessels thus distressed knew of no place of refuge short of the West Indies; and the newspapers of that day — Franklin’s Pennsylvania Gazette among them — inform us that it was no uncommon occurrence for vessels, bound for the Capes of the Delaware in winter, to be blown off and to go to the West Indies, and there wait for the return of spring before they would attempt another approach to this part of the coast. 81. Accordingly, Dr. Franklin’s discovery with regard to the Gulf Stream temperature was looked upon as one of great importance, not only on account of its affording to the frosted mariner in winter a convenient refuge from the snow-storm, but because of its serving the navigator with an excellent land-mark or beacon for our coast in all weathers. And so viewing it, the doctor concealed his discovery, for we were then at war with England. It was then not uncommon for vessels to be as much as 10º out in their reckoning. PAGE 62  THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. He himself was 5º. Therefore, in approaching the coast, the current of warm water in the Gulf Stream, and of cold water on this side of it, if tried with the thermometer, would enable the mariner to judge with great certainty, and in the worst of weather, as to his position. Jonathan Williams afterward, in speaking of the importance which the discovery of these warm and cold currents would prove to navigation, pertinently asked the question, “If these stripes of water had been distinguished by the colors of red, white, and blue, could they be more distinctly discovered than they are by the constant use of the thermometer?” And he might have added, could they have marked the position of the ship more clearly? When his work on Thermometrical Navigation appeared, Commodore Truxton wrote to him: “Your publication will be of use to navigation by rendering sea voyages secure far beyond what even you yourself will immediately calculate, for I have proved the utility of the thermometer very often since we sailed together. “It will be found a most valuable instrument in the hands of mariners, and particularly as to those who are unacquainted with astronomical observations;..... these particularly stand in need of a simple method of ascertaining their approach to or distance from the coast, especially in the winter season; for it is then that passages are often prolonged, and ships blown off the coast by hard westerly winds, and vessels get into the Gulf Stream without its being known; on which account they are often hove to by the captains’ supposing themselves near the coast when they are very far off (having been drifted by the currents). On the other hand, ships are often cast on the coast by sailing in the eddy of the Stream, which causes them to outrun their common reckoning. Every year produces new proofs of these facts, and of the calamities incident thereto.” 82. Though Dr. Franklin’s discovery was made in 1775, yet, for political reasons, it was not generally made known till 1790. Its immediate effect in navigation was to make the ports of the North as accessible in winter as in summer. What agency this circumstance had in the decline of the direct trade of the South, which followed this discovery, would be, at least to the political economist, a subject for much curious and interesting speculation. I have referred to the commercial tables of the time, and have compared the trade of PAGE 63 INFLUENCE OF THE GULF STREAM UPON COMMERCE. Charleston with that of the northern cities for several years, both before and after the discovery of Dr. Franklin became generally known to navigators. The comparison shows an immediate decline in the Southern trade and a wonderful increase in that of the North. But whether this discovery in navigation and this revolution in trade stand in the relation of cause and effect, or be merely a coincidence, let others judge. 83. In 1769, the commerce of the two Carolinas equaled that of all the New England States together; it was more than double that of New York, and exceeded that of Pennsylvania by one third.[12] In 1792, the exports from New York amounted in value to two millions and a half; from Pennsylvania, to $3,820,000; and from Charleston alone, to $3,834,000. But in 1795, by which time the Gulf Stream began to be as well understood by navigators as it now is, and the average passages from Europe to the North were shortened nearly one half, while those to the South remained about the same, the customs at Philadelphia alone amounted to $2,941,000, or more than one half of those collected in all the states together. Nor did the effect of the doctor’s discovery end here. Before it was made, the Gulf Stream was altogether insidious in its effects. [12] From M’Pherson’s Annals of Commerce.—Exports and Imports in 1769, valued in Sterling Money. [LARGE IMAGE] PAGE 64 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. By it, vessels were often drifted many miles out of their course without knowing it; and in bad and cloudy weather, when many days would intervene from one observation to another, the set of the current, though really felt for but a few hours during the interval, could only be proportioned out equally among the whole number of days. Therefore navigators could have only very vague ideas either as to the strength or the actual limits of the Gulf Stream, until they were marked out to the Nantucket fishermen by the whales, or made known by Captain Tim Folger to Dr. Franklin. The discovery, therefore, of its high temperature, assured the navigator of the presence of a current of surprising velocity, and which, now turned to certain account, would hasten, as it had retarded his voyage in a wonderful degree. 84. Such, at the present day, is the degree of perfection to which nautical tables and instruments have been brought, that the navigator may now detect, and with great certainty, every current that thwarts his way. He makes great use of them. Colonel Sabine, in his passage, a few years ago, from Sierra Leone to New York, was drifted one thousand six hundred miles of his way by the force of currents alone; and, since the application of the thermometer to the Gulf Stream, the average passage from England has been reduced from upward of eight weeks to a little more than four. 85. Some political economists of America have ascribed the great decline of Southern commerce which followed the adoption of the Constitution of the United States to the protection given by legislation to Northern interests. But I think these statements and figures show that this decline was in no small degree owing to the Gulf Stream and the water thermometer; for they changed the relations of Charleston — the great Southern emporium of the times — removing it from its position as a half-way house, and placing it in the category of an outside station. 86. The plan of our work takes us necessarily into the air, for the sea derives from the winds some of the most striking  features in its physical geography. Without a knowledge of the winds, we can neither understand the navigation of the ocean, nor make ourselves intelligently acquainted with the great highways across it. As with the land, so with the sea; some parts of it are as PAGE 65 INFLUENCE OF THE GULF STREAM UPON COMMERCE. untraveled and as unknown as the great Amazonian wilderness of Brazil, or the inland basins of Central Africa. To the south of a line extending from Cape Horn to the Cape of Good Hope (Plate VIII.) is an immense waste of waters. None of the commercial thoroughfares of the ocean lead through it; only the adventurous whaleman finds his way there now and then in pursuit of his game; but for all the purposes of science and navigation, it is a vast unknown region. Now, were the prevailing winds of the South Atlantic northerly or southerly, instead of easterly or westerly, this unplowed sea would be an oft-used thoroughfare. 87. Nay, more, the sea supplies the winds with food for the rain which these busy messengers convey away from the ocean to “the springs in the valleys which run among the hills.” To the philosopher, the places which supply the vapors are as suggestive and as interesting for the instruction they afford, as the places are upon which the vapors are showered down. Therefore, as he who studies the physical geography of the land is expected to make himself acquainted with the regions of precipitation, so he who looks into the physical geography of the sea should search for the regions of evaporation, and for those springs in the ocean which supply the reservoirs among the mountains with water to feed the rivers; and, in order to conduct this search properly, he must consult the winds, and make himself acquainted with their “circuits.” Hence, in a work on the Physical Geography of the Sea, we treat also of the atmosphere.