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 efforts. The movement of ’89 was only the last stage of that long insurrection. But it seems to me that we have not paid sufficient attention to the fact that the Revolution of 1789, instigated by the same causes, animated by the same spirit, triumphing by the same struggles, was consummated in Italy four centuries ago. Italy was the first to sound the signal of war against feudalism; France has followed; Spain and England are beginning to move; the rest still sleep. If a grand example should be given to the world, the day of trial would be much abridged.

Note the following summary of the revolutions of property, from the days of the Roman Empire down to the present time:—

1. Fifth Century.—Barbarian invasions; division of the lands of the empire into independent portions or freeholds.

2. From the fifth to the eighth Century.—Gradual concentration of freeholds, or transformation of the small freeholds into fiefs, feuds, tenures, &c. Large properties, small possessions. Charlemagne (771–814) decrees that all freeholds are dependent upon the king of France.

3. From the eighth to the tenth Century.—The relation between the crown and the superior dependents is broken; the latter becoming freeholders, while the smaller dependents cease to recognize the king, and adhere to the nearest suzerain. Feudal system.

4. Twelfth Century.—Movement of the serfs towards liberty; emancipation of the communes.

5. Thirteenth Century.—Abolition of personal right, and of the feudal system in Italy. Italian Republics.

6. Seventeenth Century.—Abolition of feudalism in France during Richelieu’s ministry. Despotism.