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POLITICAL HISTORY. Sir Thomas Munro, (Governor of Madras, in a minute of 7th January 1823 written at the close of a tour through the country,1 summed up the then position as under: —

The weakness of the authority of Government in the Circars is owing to our restoring the districts of the petty zamindars, who had been subdued, contrary to the opinion of the Committee of Circuit;to our erecting by the permanent settlement a new set of proprietary zamindars; to our not reserving a single village in which we could exercise direct control over the ryots; and to our transferring to these proprietors the karnams, who are the source of all information. In open countries long under the immediate authority of Government, the permanent settlement, though it tends to conceal the real state of the country, does not seriously affect the public authority by encouraging resistance or rebellion; but in mountainous unhealthy districts like the Northern Circars, the greater part of which has long been in the hands of a number of petty Rájas, some claiming independence, and all constantly ready to withhold their tribute and to raise disturbances whenever they see a favourable opportunity, the permanent settlement has the effect of weakening the authority of Government over the whole province, and of rendering the establishment of security and of good order more difficult than before .... Our system in the Circars is one of forbearance, and we are obliged to connive at irregularities which would not be tolerated in other provinces, lest we should be compelled to use force and involve ourselves in a petty warfare against banditti in a pestilential climate among hills and jungles.

The affairs of the Circars can never be well administered, nor the great body of the people protected against oppression, nor the country be secured from disturbance and the incursion of plunderers, until our Government becomes more respected in those provinces than it is at present .... No zamindari once forfeited for rebellion should ever be restored, whatever temporary evil the retention of it might occasion. All estates falling in should invariably be kept and annexed o the sirkar lands .... The gradual extension of the sirkar lands should be our main object, because it is by having the direct possession and management of landed property that we can best protect the ryots, grant them remissions of rent, assist them in agricultural improvements and attach them to our Government.'

Ten years later, at the close of 1832, the disturbances in this district and in the Parlákimedi zamindari of Ganjám became so serious that Mr. George Russell, First Member of the Board of Revenue, was sent as Special Commissioner to investigate their causes and concert measures for their suppression. He was invested with extraordinary powers, including that of proclaiming martial law if necessary, and was supported by a strong force 57