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286 takes keen advantage, and which, before long, must result in the disappearance of this service.

Far more obstructive to rapid progress will native postal agencies prove. These, also, have had a long life, but, unlike the I Chan, they are wholly independent; they consider letter traffic as their legitimate business, and will die hard. Their innumerable ramifications—fast couriers, or rapid "post-boats," as the style of country decides—extend to all parts of China a veritable network of postal connections which, with their slow ways, have for centuries answered the requirements of busy and thrifty communities. These posting agencies are essentially shop associations, for the most part engaged also in other trades. The transmission of parcels, bank drafts, and is the most lucrative part of their postal operations. They fix the limit of their responsibilities and adjust their rates as they please, the latter having frequently to be bargained for. One characteristic rule is that half the charge is paid by the sender and half by the addressee. This practice often leads to extra demands on delivery when the second half of the charge, the Chiu-tzu or chiu-li (pour boire) is claimed.

These agencies, unfettered by legislation, indispensable to the people, flourished undisturbed at all places till, some fifty years ago, the appearance of steam brought also for those working at places along the coast and the rivers a new order of things. Yet for a long time no particular notice was taken of their doings, and when supervision over them became necessary they were found to have organised themselves into strong bodies holding a monopoly for the transmission by steamers of all inter-port native correspondence. With these, conveniently styled the lun-ch'uan hsin-chu (or "steamer letter hongs"), the Imperial Post Office came into direct contact as soon as the decree of 1896 called upon them to recognise the new institution. But from the first a most considerate policy was adopted towards them and the ordinary native establishments of the interior. It was recognised by the Inspector-General that they were necessary, and it was therefore decided to encourage their continuance and development. In order to regularise matters and bring all into line, it was decided to begin with the registration of such firms as have business houses at the Treaty ports, to arrange for the carriage of their inter-port mails, to require all who thus registered to send such inter-port mail matter, &amp;c., through the Imperial Post Office, and to affiliate them as agents of the Imperial Post Office for the conveyance of letters, &amp;c., to and from places inland. Special regulations have been drawn up in this sense for their guidance and observance, and while their constituents will continue to pay them as before for transmitting correspondence at native rates fixed by themselves, such firms, on the other hand, pay a transit fee to the Imperial Post Office, which has undertaken the conveyance of their inter-port mails according to special tariff. Accordingly, these native establishments—of which more than three hundred have already been registered—will continue for some time to work almost independently alongside the Imperial Post Office, but they will eventually be absorbed and gradually merged in the public postal service of the Empire without being inconvenienced or suppressed.

Another difficulty, also special to China, is found in the foreign post offices established in the Treaty ports. At the present day their presence and increasing number affect not a little the imperial administration. Two or three of different nationalities were originally established at Shanghai, the terminus port of foreign mail boats, and were required there, and are still, for the passing of international correspondence abroad. But they have since opened branches at numerous ports, with the result that French, British, German, and Japanese post offices are now found doing a work for which the National Post Office alone would suffice.

The headquarters of the Imperial Post Office are at Peking, where all postal affairs are dealt with by the Postal Secretary, under the Inspector-General of Customs and Posts. The 18 provinces and Manchuria have been divided into postal districts now 38 in number, each of which is under the immediate supervision of a postmaster. The head office of each district is at the Treaty port of that district, except in the case of Peking, where the head office of the large Peking district is situated. Certain large districts have been sub-divided into sub-districts, of which there are now five, each under the direction of a district inspector, who resides in the provincial capital in that sub-district. Each head or sub-head office has under it a certain number of branch offices, inland agencies, and box offices. All branch offices established at important places undertake the transmission of small sums of money by means of a money order system.

The Imperial Post Office is to be found now in every provincial capital of the Empire, in most prefectural and district cities, and in the more important smaller centres and towns throughout China, the total number of establishments on December 31, 1907, being 2,541.

Communication between imperial establishments is kept up by means of contract steamers on the coast and large rivers; by railways where they exist; by steam-launches, junks, of hong-boats on the inland waterways; and by mounted or foot couriers on the numerous overland routes, which now measure over 101,000 li (33,000 miles) in length. Where steam communication is available operations are greatly facilitated, and transport is cheaper; hence certain tariff distinctions between steam-served and non-steam-served places.

Communication by couriers of a kind to fulfil the requirements of a postal service built up on Western lines has naturally been no easy matter in a vast country like China, in which every variety of geographical features is presented and public roads are utterly neglected. Old-established trade routes are usually followed, even at the cost of extra distance, as offering greater safety for the couriers and as capable of convenient sub-divisions into stages, from the number of towns and villages found on them. Stages are generally limited to 100 li (33 English miles), and the couriers run according to schedule on fixed days; but on the main routes speed is accelerated as much as possible, daily despatch being ensured on them for light mails, and an every two-days', or semi-weekly, service for heavy mails. For light mails night and day foot couriers are used in some parts and mounted couriers in others, raising the speed to 200 li (or 65 miles) per day. The couriers are the employés of the Imperial Post Office and wear uniforms or badges.

THE INSPECTOR-GENERAL.—Sir Robert Hart, Bart., G.C.M.G., Inspector-General of Imperial Maritime Customs and Posts, has for many years been one of the most remarkable figures in China. He has filled with great distinction a very difficult and onerous post, and his success may be ascribed to the fact that in him are to be found, in conjunction with scholarly attainments, those attributes of the born administrator—initiative, courage, and organising ability. No foreigner has ever wielded such power in the Celestial Empire. He has enjoyed the implicit confidence of the Chinese Government in respect of internal domestic questions, and his influence has time and again had important bearing on matters of international moment. He has, indeed, aptly been described as "the permanent trustee of foreign interests in China," and as "the acknowledged intermediary between Western nations and the China Government." To him we owe many of the existing treaties and conventions. His skill in the handling of commercial problems, his sound judgment on questions of policy, but, still more, his intimate knowledge of the Chinese, and of their language and literature, have compelled respect and admiration; while his equity, courtesy, and innate personal charm, have won the love and esteem of all with whom he has been brought into contact. The high opinion in which he has been held by the Chinese Government was strikingly shown when, some years ago, an American syndicate came forward with an offer "to farm" the Customs. The terms appeared to be advantageous, but the board under whom Sir Robert worked submitted the offer to him without comment. After reading it through, he expressed satisfaction that it should have been made, because it had been his intention to ask for an increase of expenditure. The board, without more ado, dismissed the proposal of the American syndicate, and sanctioned the disbursements advised by Sir Robert Hart.

Sir Robert was born at Milltown, County Armagh, on February 20, 1835, and is thus about the same age as the Dowager Empress of China. He was the eldest son of Henry Hart, of Lisburn, County Antrim, and Ann, second daughter of John Edgar, of Ballybray. He was educated at Queen's College, Taunton; Wesley College, Dublin; and Queen's College, Belfast. He took the B.A. degree as early as 1853, and the M.A. degree in 1871, the honorary degree of LL.D. being conferred upon him by the University of Michigan in 1882. In 1854 he entered the Consular service in China, and on his arrival in Hongkong, he was appointed Supernumerary Interpreter to the British Superintendency of Trade. In the same year he was transferred to Ningpo, where he became Assistant at the British Consulate. Three years later he proceeded to Canton, where he held successively the posts of Second Assistant to the British Consulate, Secretary to the Allied Commissioners for the Government of the City, and Interpreter to the British Consulate. In 1859 came that change in his career which marked the beginning of one of the most remarkable life-histories in the annals of modern China; he left the Consular service, having obtained special leave to do so, in order to join the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs, in which he had been offered the appointment of Deputy Commissioner of Canton. During 1861–63 he was Officiating Inspector-General; then for a few months he was Commissioner at Shanghai, with charge of the Yangtsze Ports and Ningpo; and later in the same year, 1863, he was confirmed in the appointment of Inspector-General. From that date he has held the post continuously, for his tenure of the office of British Envoy