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204 ages, but, as is well known, progress was rudely interrupted by the conflict between foreign religious propagandism and Japanese civil authority, which led to the closure of the country. Things remained thus until the middle of the nineteenth century, when the struggle between conservative tendencies and newly developed liberal principles ended in the re-opening of the country. All restrictions on shipbuilding were withdrawn, the study of navigation received earnest attention, and the Government not only encouraged the construction of sea-going vessels at home, but began also to purchase steamers abroad. In 1882 there were two companies—the Mitsubishi Company and the Kyodŏ Unyu Kaisha, or Union Transportation Company—in receipt of State aid. But a trial of three years demonstrated the inexpediency of having two subsidised rival companies in the field, and in 1885 they were amalgamated into the present Nippon Yusen Kaisha, or Japan Mail Steamship Company. During the following nine years the bulk of the coastwise carrying trade was held by the steamers of this Company. Moreover, regular services were maintained between Yokohama and Kobe and the large ports of China; a line of steamers plied between Japan and Bombay; and vessels flying the Nippon Yusen Kaisha flag made frequent voyages to Australia and Hawaii, carrying emigrants. The China-Japanese War of 1894–95 finally established the Company's reputation for efficiency, and amply justified the trust hitherto reposed in it by the State. It has now established steamship services to America. Europe, and Australia, and, under contract with the Japanese Government, it maintains regular mail lines between Japan and Europe, between Hongkong, Shanghai, Japan ports, and America, and between Japan and Australia; the two first named being each fortnightly and the latter four weekly. There are also regular weekly services between Hongkong, Swatow and Bangkok, and a tri-monthly service from Kobe to Bombay. Regular and frequent services are maintained from Japan to North China, Korea, Vladivostock, Formosa, &amp;c., and around the coast of Japan. Altogether, the Nippon Yusen Kaisha maintains twenty-three regular services, of which nine are with foreign countries, and fourteen in home waters. The Company is agent for the Great Northern Steamship Company, operating the new twin-screw steamship Minnesota between Seattle, Japan, and China. The Minnesota has a cubical capacity of 28,000 tons, and is by far the largest steamer running to the Orient. The Company also represents in the Orient the Great Northern Railway, whose track passes through some of the finest scenery in America, and is agent, as well, for the Nisshin Kisen Kaisha (Japan-China Steam Navigation Company). It has a capital of Y22,000,000, a reserve of over Y11,000,000, and a fleet of 78 steamers aggregating 260,000 tons gross, the majority of them new and furnished with everything necessary to the comfort of passengers and the expeditious handling of cargo. The Company may therefore claim to be not only amongst the first and most important of Japanese shipping firms, but worthy also to rank amongst the greatest enterprises of its kind in the world. Mr. T. Kusumoto is the manager of the branch office of the Company at Hongkong.

Amongst the Japanese shipping firms having offices at Hongkong, the Toyo Kisen Kaisha occupies a prominent place. The Company was formed only ten years ago at Tokyo, Japan, and its growth has, like that of Japanese shipping generally, been remarkable. At the present time the Company conducts the mail service between Hongkong, Shanghai, the Japanese ports, and San Francisco, via Honolulu, under contract with the Japanese Government. The steamers on this run have earned a well-deserved reputation for comfort, speed, and punctuality, and are at the moment one of the most popular lines in the America-Orient passenger traffic. The steamers employed are the Hongkong Maru, Nippon Maru, and the America Maru, each of which is of 6,200 tons gross. But, up-to-date as these vessels are, their capacity has proved too small for the ever-increasing demands of the service, and they are to be replaced by three ships of 14,000 tons gross, which are being constructed in Japanese shipyards. They will be the largest steamers so far built in Japan. They are being fitted with turbine engines, will burn liquid fuel, and in every other respect, will be as thoroughly equipped as Atlantic liners. It has been decided to call one the Tenyo Maru, another the Chiyo Maru, while the name of the third is under consideration. The first one is almost ready, and the others will be