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 election, the only possible explanation was a conspiracy to defraud him and those who supported him. On August 17, for instance, he asserted that “the only way we’re going to lose this election is if this election is rigged.” One week later, he declared that “[t]he only way they can take this election away from us is if this is a rigged election.” He echoed these points at every opportunity, laying the groundwork for a refusal to accept any outcome other than his own continued grip on power.

This was not mere rhetoric, as became apparent immediately after Election Day. Based on incomplete early returns, and despite warnings from virtually every expert and election official in the country, President Trump claimed victory and tried to stop states from counting millions of lawful ballots. On November 4, for example, he tweeted: “We are up BIG, but they are trying to STEAL the Election. We will never let them do it.” Over the following days, many media outlets (including Fox News) reported that Joseph R. Biden, Jr. had won the election. President Trump responded by asserting—on November 8—that “this was a stolen election.” He repeated that same theme many times over the following months, urging his supporters to “Stop the Steal!”

It was never clear who President Trump blamed for this asserted fraud—which, according to him, was vast enough to affect the outcome in many different states. At various points throughout

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