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xliv powerful castles, which, originally established by the Norman Kings, were rebuilt and strengthened to keep down the native Welsh. Oppression, violence, and tyranny followed in the train of these settlers. There are abundant signs during this period that the people resented the new officials and English ways, and that they struggled desperately and continuously against the dominant race. In the Lordships Marchers the stern, ruthless, and unjust rule of the over-lords provoked the to several abortive insurrections. Great abuses existed owing to the harsh and severe measures adopted by the new officials, and keen and bitter struggles ensued.

In 1400, the seething discontent of the broke forth under Owen Glyndwr's leadership. He was the last great military leader. His mysterious personality and soldierlike qualities produced a stimulating effect upon his despondent fellow-countrymen. At first an ubiquitous guerilla leader, he became subsequently the head of the most important revolt of the against the harsh rule of their conquerors. students from the universities of England, labourers working in England,  soldiers who had served in France as mercenaries, flocked to his standard, and for fifteen years Glyndwr defied and successfully resisted the English power. He attacked the fortified castles of the rulers, and the greater part at one time or another fell into his hands. His daring, his magnetic and mysterious personality, and his rapid and deadly strokes at the official rulers made him feared. In 1404, he summoned parliaments to Dolgelly and Machynlleth. His aim was the independence of the Church and the freedom of his country. The establishment of two universities, one in, the other in , was projected by him. He became an ally of the King of France and of Hotspur, and generally instilled dread into the English authorities. Under these circumstances it is not