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 were no bridges; the roads were unsafe; and the caravans were protected by companies of volunteers, who hired themselves out. The king levied taxes as well as octroi duties. The custom of haggling for the price prevailed. In the case of goods ordered for the palace, there was an officer called valuer of goods, who attended to it. There were some important roads, for example from Sävatthi to Räjagaha, from Videha to Gāndhāra, from Magadha to Sauvira, we also hear of sea-voyages from Bharukachcha or Broach to Burma and to Babylon (Baveru)

The philosophy of the period.–Something is necessary in the way of reviewing the philosophical thought of this period. The history of philosophical literature by dates is in a very rudimentary condition and consequently a sharp demarcation of the philosophical thought of this period from the thought of the period that preceded cannot be attempted. But inasmuch as the thought that preceded was in a large measure incorporated into the philosophy of these five centuries, such an attempt is needless.

To introduce the different mazes of philosophical systems would hardly be possible or wise even in the case of those which are most important. There are about