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 content. Arguably, content with clear boundaries, such as a sine wave function, can be easily separated and then r­e-​­embedded in other courses, where these connections are made, but this becomes more difficult for subjects with less ­well-​­defined boundaries, for example taking a learning object about slavery from one context and embedding it elsewhere may lose much of the context required for it to be meaningful. While learners want context, in order for them to be reusable, learning objects should have as little context as possible, as this reduces the opportunities for their reuse. This leads to Wiley’s paradox, which he summarises as, ‘It turns out that reusability and pedagogical effectiveness are completely orthogonal to each other. Therefore, pedagogical effectiveness and potential for reuse are completely at odds with one another.’ This is shown in Figure 3.

A second issue with learning objects was over-​­specification. At the time of their development, interoperability was a major concern, so being able to take a learning object developed by one university, and use it in the learning management system (LMS) of another one was the goal. There were issues around discoverability also, as much



Figure 3: The Reusability Paradox.

Figure by Wiley 2004. Published under a CC-​­BY license.