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 the Gold OA route, embargoes for ­self-​­archiving, and predatory entrants into the market. Lastly, the importance of engagement and ownership of the process by academics is highlighted by the potential models that open practices offer.

In his book What Money Can’t Buy, Sandel (2012) explores the increasing market-​­based approach to much of society. His ­examples include paying homeless people to queue in line for others and a nursery that when it started charging fees for late collection of children, found that the late collections increased. Behaviours that had been ruled by social conventions became monetised and could be purchased. Sandel might well have added the changing nature of the relationship with academic ­publishers to his list. Once authors start paying publishers directly to ­publish, as is the case with Gold route, then as Sandel argues, this fundamentally changes the nature of the relationship. Academic ­publishing is a practice that is at the core of academic identity, and as such, this fundamental change in its nature illustrates the impact of ­openness, and the importance of engaging with its future direction.

If open access publishing is the most established area for open education, then open educational resources runs a close ­second and offers a comparative study of a movement being owned largely by universities themselves. This will be the focus of the next chapter.