Page:The Spirit of Russia by T G Masaryk, volume 2.pdf/520

494 by Gregory VII. Widespread credulity, and the increasing power of the church, secured supremacy for the pope as spiritual ruler; the church became the city of God, and was generally recognised in practice as a real state. This revolutionary doctrine was systematised by Aegidius Romanus and James of Viterbo, followers of Thomas Aquinas, the greatest of the schoolmen.

The reformation and the associated revolution in religious and ecclesiastical affairs brought about notable transformations in the medieval theocracy. Great changes occurred in the religious and philosophical outlook, the influence of the renaissance and that of the beginnings of modern philosophy and modern science being superadded to that of the reformation. The reformation marked the attainment of a higher stage in religious thought, shown in the overthrow of priestly power. Morality, the relationship of man to man, was now regarded as the chief concern of religion; the priest lost his privileged position as mediator between man and God; men began to adopt the conception of a reign of law in the cosmos and in human historical development, became impressed with a feeling of personal responsibility, and inclined more and more towards independence in religion and in other spheres of thought. The ascetic ideal was replaced by endeavours to conduct life unascetically; the celibate priesthood disappeared; family life was exalted.

Socio-politically considered, the reformation and the new trend of thought mark the beginning of that process of secularisation which is not yet completed. The first stage was to free philosophy and science from the dominion of the church; next came the enfranchisement of the state and of law; the secularisation of morality and even of religion is still in progress.

Side by side with the Roman church there now came into existence the various Protestant churches, as props to those states in which the reformation had proved victorious. But the states, likewise, in which the counter-reformation had gained the day, now became stronger. In Catholic France and in Catholic Austria absolutism triumphed.

The state, as it gained power, took over various cultural