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Socialism, no less than liberalism, has to solve all these problems; and in the attempts made to find solutions the political, social, and philosophic differences between the two outlooks and philosophies are conspicuously displayed.

Such elucidations and delimitations are made practically rather than theoretically, and often under pressure of immediate need; but in Russia, as in Europe, there are to be found liberal theorists who supply philosophical criticism of the liberal program, considering that program in relation to contemporary developments in Europe, and endeavouring to replace the old liberalism by a new, to reform liberalism. I may refer, for example, to Novgorodcev, professor of the philosophy of law at Moscow. In his earlier writings, and notably as editor of a collection of essays entitled The Problems of Idealism (1902), he has announced his adhesion to the modern idealist movement, but has adopted a sound democratic foundation, declaring in favour of natural law. He has also done well in taking his start from Kant.

In agreement with the French and the English theorists of renovated liberalism, Novgorodcev hopes for a rebirth of liberalism in Russia. He demands the democratisation of liberalism, and he advocates reform whereby the extraparliamentary initiative of the people may be organised and strengthened (the introduction of the referendum, etc.). He also favours the socialisation of liberalism, but it must be admitted that he fails to explain clearly what he means by this demand.

The question of the socialisation and democratisation of liberalism is one of peculiar and seasonable importance for Russia, seeing that Russian liberalism from the first accepted the ideals of socialism, even if some vacillation was subsequently noticeable. This is precisely what differentiates modern Russian liberalism from European liberalism, .and especially from German and English liberalism. I have done my best to insist upon the inner kinship between liberalism, socialism, and anarchism; and in the accounts given of the individual thinkers I have endeavoured to convey precise information in each case regarding their socio-political trend and their

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