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290 to 1848 he was living abroad, and was an associate of the Russian refugees, notably of Herzen and Bakunin. He was acquainted with Marx, and corresponded with him. A detailed report from Marx to Annenkov dealing with Proudhon's Philosophie de la Misére (1846) has recently been published. Among the Russian refugees, notably in Paris, there were towards the close of the forties numerous adherents of the socialism of that day, and Marx may have been personally acquainted with some of them.

Herzen and Bakunin were already acquainted with Marx at this date.

In the beginning of the fifties, the activity of all the refugees, those from Russia no less than those from Germany and elsewhere, was paralysed by the reaction after 1848, although Herzen and Ogarev continued their labours. During the early sixties, after the liberation of the peasantry, the number of Russian refugees underwent considerable increase, and their activities became more lively, being stimulated by Herzen's "Kolokol," by Bakunin's work as agitator, and by the struggle between Marx and Bakunin in the International. The repressive movement in Russia swelled the number of the refugees, and favoured the growth of their revolutionary sentiments.

In 1862, Bakunin translated the Communist Manifesto. In 1865, Tkačev, in his literary critiques, diffused the doctrine of historical materialism as formulated by Marx in 1859. In 1872 was published Nikolai-on's translation of the first volume of Capital (2nd edition, 1898). Bakunin, too, wished to translate this work. Nikolai-on translated the second volume of Capital in 1885, and the third volume in 1896.

As early as 1870, Mihailovskii applied Marx's theory to the historical development of Russia; subsequently (1877) he discussed Žukovskii's criticism of Marx; in the nineties, Mihailovskii defended the views of the narodniki against the Marxists.

Lavrov, too, was in friendly relations with Marx and his circle, and Lavrov learned much from Marx.

In 1861, Šelgunov availed himself of Engel's work upon the condition of the English working classes in the compilation