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Rh stitutionalism helped to form the views of the decabrists and their predecessors. Moreover, the Russians were interested in the parliamentary reform of 1832, and still more in the Chartist movement. But not until a later generation did English philosophy come into its own in Russia. Carlyle was the first philosophic writer whose works were widely known. But long before this the influence of Byron had been considerable.

NDER pressure of reaction a remarkable development occurred in the literary movement of opposition and revolution.

As a matter of course the schools and still more the universities were unsatisfactory to young men and were detested by them and but few of the professors were able to act as leaders of youth or to form the mind of the rising generation. Doubtless among the students progressives were in the minority, but at the outset the troops of opposition and revolution were mainly recruited from academic youth. It has been characteristic of absolutism, and was above all characteristic of Russian absolutism, that students should play so prominent a role in all forms of opposition and revolution.

The insufficiency of the universities and of all other instruments of culture, in conjunction with the pressure of absolutism, resulted at an early date in making self-culture an integral constituent of the progressive programme. During the reign of Alexander, and still more during that of Nicholas, there originated in loose association with the universities a number of literary salons and small circles. Here persons with like sentiments, or at least similar aims, forgathered. Here theoretical problems were vigorously discussed, and before long political and social topics were eagerly considered. These circles were at the same time centres of propaganda. A natural growth from the masonic lodges and secret societies, the circles for self-culture subsequently developed into revolutionary committees.