Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 20.djvu/732

* WOMEN IN INDUSTKY. 624 WOMEN IN INDUSTRY. of the nineteenth century have changed the house- hold from a centre of production to one merely for consumi^tion. These changes liave had a mo- mentous effect on woman's economic position. Women have now two important economic func- tions in the industrial world : ( 1 ) as buyers and (2) as producers. The invasion of the domestic sphere by factory-made products has made every woman a buyer. The importance of this function has only recently been recognized, ilany women have also entered the field of production, and their number continues to increase. In 1S35 only. seven industries were open to women besides do- mestic service in the United States. The census of 1900 makes a return of 303 separate occupa- tions, in only eight of which are there no women workers. The introduction of machinery created a de- mand for the cheap labor of women. In 1816 there were 66.000 women spinning; in 1860, 65 per cent, of those employed in textile work were women. American and English women of the lower classes, both married and unmarried, en- tered factories. A large number filled positions as domestic servants, more servants being re- quired as the country grew richer. This work soon fell into the hands of foreigners — Irish, Ger- mans. Swedes, who in turn filled the factories. The steps have been from the kitchen to the fac- tory, and then to shops. Women of the middle class were also forced into industrial life. The rising standard of living made it impossible for men to support so many idle women; the same reason made the prospect of marriage uncertain, especially in England and Eastern America, where women are in excess; and above all, by the new methods, women at home were deprived of their occupations. These women became dress- makers, teachers, and clerks. The Civil War was an im])ortant agent in determining the future of many women, as it left them dependent upon themselves. Among the well-to-do one class, stinuilated by the spirit of the age, has made de- mands to enter business and the professions. From these women arose the cry for equal rights, equal education, and equal opportunities. The members of the other class, as the result of free- dom from labor, have either become economic parasites, or they are using their freedom to improve social conditions. Prejudice has met the efforts of women to en- ter the professions and higher positions, but the development of business from 1880 to 1000 has opened many positions in the clerical forces necessary for large establishments. The exten- sion of the factory system to food, clothing, and laundry has increased the demand for women workers. The extent to which women are employed in productive pursuits is sho i by the census of 1900. when there were 5.329.807 engaged in gain- ful occui)ations (to 23,95(i,I15 males), distributed as follows: 2,099,165 in domestic service; 980,025 in agriculture, of wliom 665.791 are agri- cultural laborers; 1,315,890 in manufacture; 503,574 in trade and transportation; and 431.153 in the professions. There were 344.948 dress- makers; 33.5,711 laundresses; 277.972 textile workers; 149,256 saleswomen: 86.158 stenog- raphers; 34.132 retail dealers; 74,186 liookkeep- crs and accountants; 85,269 clerks; and 22.556 telephone and telegrapli operators. In higher positions were found 253 bankers; 45 brokers; 1271 officers of banks; 2883 manufacturers and officials of companies; 153 builders and contrac- tors; and 261 wholesale dealers. Some of the unusual employments of women were: 154 boat- men and sailors; 879 watchmen, policemen, and detectives; 85 bootblacks; 1320 hunters; 2 motormen; 13 street car conductors; 31 brake- men ; 7 steam car conductors ; 2 roofers ; 126 plumbers; 45 plasterers; 167 brick and stone masons; 241 paper hangers; 1759 painters; 545 carpenters; 41 mechanics; 193 blacksmiths; 571 machinists; 3370 workers in iron and steel; 800 brass workers; 1775 workers in tin; 100 lumber- men; 113 wood-choppers; 373 sawmill em- ployees ; 440 bartenders ; 2086 saloon-keepers ; 906 draymen; 324 undertakers; 177 stationary engineers and firemen; 1947 stock-raisers; 409 electricians ; 84 civil engineers ; 3 mining engi- neers; II surveyors; 248 chemists; 21 steve- dores ; 78 longshoremen ; and 5582 barbers. The objections to women in industrial life are: ( 1 ) theoretical — the proper place for a woman is in a home, supported by a man; (2) their will- ingness to accept low pay; (3) the bad condi- tions luuler which they are frequently forced to work, with the resulting injur.y to health; (4) in- jury to morals, from working with men, subor- dination to men, and temptations accompanying freedom; (5) competition with men, depriving men of their occupations, lessening their respect for women, and frequently making them depend- ent upon women; and (6) demoralization of the home when married women with young children are employed. The advantages urged are the training resulting from industrial life under so- cial rather than personal relations ; the develop- ment of technical skill and the utilization of spe- cial abilities: the breadth of view obtained from contact with men ; the moral training of self-sup- port; and the importance of economic independ- ence. Among the reasons for woman's low wages are : her position as a new economic factor ; her low standard of living; her frequent partial sup- port : the insufficiency of her eipiipment, often due to the expectation of marriage; the restricted field of employment and the exclusion from gain- ful occupations; her anomalous political posi- tion; her lack of trade organization; protective factory legislation, limiting her when in compe- tition with men: her lo^s of time through illness; and her traditional inferiority. In England and on the Continent many women are employed in factories, dimiestic service, low- grade teaching positions, and low-paid Govern- ment positions in the post-office, telegraph of- fices, and as clerks. In England and Belgium agricultural courses arc lieing provided. In Austria and other parts of lOurope many women are day laborers. In France women assist their husbands and many have been successful in commerce. In Germany and Denmark women are being organized. Congresses have been held to consiiler women's work. Biiu.iooit.M'iiv. ^lason. Womnn'/) Share in Pi-imifire Indiislrii (New York. 19001 ; Veblen, Throrif of the Leisure Classes (New York, 1899) ; Stetson. Wom"« and Economies (New York. 1898) ; Campbell, H'oihcii Wnr/e Earn- ers' liihliofiraphu (Boston. 1893) ; Elerenth An- nual Ileporl of the Unilid ftlalrs Commissioner