Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 19.djvu/484

* TRANSPORTATION. 422 TRANSUBSTANTIATION. system for over three-quarters of a century. In- volving as it did the crowding of prisoners under extrenielj- bad sanitary and moral conditions, the hulk system vas severely criticised by sev- eral Parliamentary committees, but it was abol- ished only gradually, as penitentiaries were constructed. Within a decade after 1776 another settlement for criminals had been found in Australia. In 1787 the first lot of convicts left for New South Wales. In 1804 they began to be sent to Tasmania. The number transported was at first small. The annual average up to 1816 was less than 500, but it rose to 3000 during the twenties and thirties. The spirit and prac- tice of the .system were essentially penal, not reformatory, and conditions of life in a colony where the majority of persons were convicts were almost inevitably bad. The report of the Parliamentary committee of 1838 condemned the system at almost all points, and a few years later (1842) a 'probation system' was planned by which prisoners were classified and might pass through various stages toward pardon or freedom. The essential difficulty of tlie scheme was to find work in the colonics for ticket-of- leave men or 'probationers,' wliile the matter was further complicated by an increasing ob- jection of the colonists to the importation of con- victs. Transportation to New South Wales ceased after 1849, and to Tasmania after 185'2. Thenceforth Western Australia was the only outlet, and though the probation system, im- proved in 1847, worked there successfully, the colony was quite unable to provide for all Eng- lish convicts. With the development of the .system of penal servitude (1853-63) transporta- tion declined, and the last shipment of criminals to Western Australia was in 1867. In France penal transportation was estab- lished by a law of 1854. Guiana was at first utilized as a place to send criminals, but its climate proved quite unsuitable, and except for negro convicts it has been abandoned as a penal settlement since 1867. Mention might be made, however, of the notable exception of Captain Al- fred Dreyfus (q.v.). In 1864 convicts were sent to New Caledonia, where conditions have been much more favorable ; but, though the system still continues in use, it is not regarded with much favor. Russia is the only other modern nation which has practiced transportation on a large scale. Siberia was made a place of settle- ment in the seventeenth century, and after the discovery of the mines the system grew apace. Between 1807 and 1899 it was estimated that 865,000 persons had been transported to Siberia. Since 1869 the island of Saghalien (q.v.) has been used largely as a penal colony. In 1896 it contained 15,000 convicts and exiles, and less than 3.000 free settlers. The horrors of Siberian exile which Krapotkin, Dostoyevsky, and others have told to the Western world, have been considerably mitigated in recent years. Convict labor does not prove of permanent eco- nomic advantage, and in Siberia, as elsewhere, it has been found impossible to colonize a coun- try with convicts. In 1900, following the in- vestigation of a commission of 1899, the Rus- sian penal system was radically reformed. Im- prisonment is to take the place of exile for all except political and religious offenders. No further attempt is to be made to settle convicts as colonists, but all those exiled will remain imprisoned during their sentences. Consult: Du Cane, Puiiislimcnt and Prevention of Crime (London, 1885); Wines, Punishment and Reformation^ (ib., 1895); Holtzendorff, Die Deportation als Strafmittel (Leipzig, 1859) ; Krapotkin, In Russian Prisons (London, 1887) ; Kennan, iiiheria and the Exile System (New York, 1891): De Windt, The Aeio Siberia (London, 1896). TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS (from transpose, OF., Fr. transposcr, from Lat. trans- ponere, to transpose, from trans, across, through -j- poncre, to place). Those musical in- struments whose natural scale is always ex- pressed in C major irrespective of the actual pitch. Such instruments are the horns, trumpets, cornets, tubas, clarinets, and cor anglais. The C major scale when played upon the B flat clarinet is identical in pitch with the B flat major scale. In order to play the real C major this instru- ment must play the scale written as D. In a composition in the key of F major the signature of the strings and all non-transposing instru- ments will, of course, be one fiat; whereas the B flat clarinets must be written iu the key of G. See SIusiciL Instruments. TRANSPOSITION (Lat. transpositio, from traiisponere, to transpose). In music, the per- formance of a composition in a key other than the one in which it was written by the composer. Vocal works are most frequently transposed, as when a tenor wishes to sing a work original- ly written for low voice. Transposition occurs also often in transcription. Singers have no difficulty in transposing a song into any key, but the transposition at sight upon any instru- ment, especiallj' the organ or pianoforte, is diffi- cult. See ScoKE. TRANSUBSTANTIATION (]ML. iransub- stantiatio, trunssubstantiatio, change of sub- stance, from transuhstantiare, transsubstantiare, to change to another substance, from Lat. trans, across, through -f- substantia, substance, essence, material, from substare, to stand under, be present, from sub, imder + stare, to stand). A word used by Roman Catholic theologians to designate the change which they believe to take place in the Eucharistic elements of bread and wine, in virtue of the consecration. The term was first ollicially adopted by the Church at the Lateran Council of 1215, and the doctrine in- volved by it explicitly defined as an article of faith by the Council of Trent: "The whole sub- stance of the bread is changed into the body of Christ, and the whole substance of the wine into His Blood, the species alone remaining." The definition of the manner of Christ's pres- ence is reall}' rather a philosophical than a theological one, resting as it does upon the Aristotelian sj'stem of philosophy adopted by the mediaeval theologians. It is based upon the be- lief in the existence in everything of an essen- tial distinctive principle not cognizable by the senses, called 'substance:' the 'species' or 'ac- cidents' of the thing are qualities which are perceived by the senses — color, taste, smell, so- lidity, etc. In transubstantiation. accordingly, the accidents remain unchanged, while the un- derlying substances of bread and wine cease to