Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 19.djvu/438

* TOUSSAINT. 380 TOWAGE. being African slaves. He was coachman and after- wards assistant to the overseer of his master's sugar plantation, and acquired some little educa- tion, which he used to good advantage. When the French Eevolution, which largely affected the fortunes of French Haiti, broke out, he was the overseer of his master, a planter named De Libertat. The population of French Haiti in 1790 numbered about 500,000. of whom 38,360 were Europeans. 28.370 free mulattoes. and the remainder negro slaves. There were thus three .sharply defined castes with different interests. The Europeans jealously guarded all political privileges. The free nnil'attoes were nevertheless an intelligent class and large property-owners. A decree of the French Constituent Assembly, May 15, 1791, gave to all free persons of color the privileges of French citizenship, but the white planters of Haiti, an arrogant colonial aris- tocracy, did everything in their power to delay the application of the decree. On August 23, 1791. the slaves became a factor in the problem by rising in a fierce insurrection, which led whites and mulattoes to drop their quarrel in the face of a common danger. Toussaint took part in the uprising, and won a prominent place among the leaders of the insurrection. The re- volt was temporarilv suppressed, but the repeal by the French Assembly in May. 1792. of the decree of 1791. alienated the mulattoes. throwing them on the side of the negroes, and reopening the civil war. For a while Toussaint took service with the Spaniards in the east of the island, with whose aid he overran a part of the French ter- ritory. Commissioners from France attempted to settle the troubles of the island and finally proclaimed universal freedom in August. 1793. Tliis decree was ratified by the National Conven- tion a few months later. This won Toussaint over to the side of the French Republic, and he came to the front as the recognized leader of his race. The English at this time had seized Port an Prince, and were besieging the French Governor, Laveavix, in Port de la Paix. Tous- saint went to his assistance, and it was Laveaux who, by his exclamation, Mais cct homme fait otiverture partout. gave Toussaint the surname I'Ouverture, by which he has since been known. Toussaint was made a general of division and acted with great vigor against the Spanish, who had been seeking to secure control of the western part of the island. In 1790 Toussaint was made conunander-in-chief of the French forces on the island, and signalized himself in the following year by compelling the surrender of the English who had invaded Haiti. He soon came into conflict with H^douville, the French Commissioner, whom he compelled to sail for France. Hedouville, however, had succeeded in stirring up dissension between the negroes and the mulatto element, and in 1799 a fierce civil war was waged between the blacks under Toussaint and the mulattoes under General Andr# Rigaud. After being re- duced to desperate straits Toussaint finally, in December. 1799, succeeded in crushing his op- ponent. By January. 1801, he had brought the whole island under his power. He now became virtually a dictator, but ruled the island with moderation and firmness, and with justice toward the different classes of the population. The pros- perity of the island revived under his measures. His private life was rational and modest, but in public he assimicd an elaborate state for the purpose of impressing his followers. He had an administrative council of nine, eight of w-hora were white men. A constitution was drawn up, providing for free trade and naming Toussaint life President. This was submitted to Napoleon, who saw in it a move toward independence (which it probably was), and determined to put down the Haitian leader. After the Treaty of Amiens had freed him temporarily of danger from England, the First Consul proclaimed the reestablishment of slavery in the island. Tous- saint replied by a declaration of independence in July, 1802. Napoleon sent General Leclerc with 30,000 men to reduce the Haitians to submission. Leclerc was joined by many of Toussaint's ene- mies, among them being Rigaud. and the future rulers, Petion and Boyer. The French com- mander, after failing to obtain possession of Toussaint's person by treachery wliile conduct- ing his campaign, sought to arouse discontent among Toussaint's followers and to bribe his officers with flattering promises. He was slowly gaining ground in this campaign of deceit and force coml)ined, wlien he foolishly announced his intention of restoring slavery and thereby united the negroes once more about their leader. Le- clerc then recalled his blundering declaration, promised liberty and a general representative assembly, and won over several of the negro chiefs, who were finally joined by Toussaint, anxious as he always seems to have been for the greatest good of his people. He was treacher- ously arrested after he had made his submission, taken to France and impri.soned without trial in the Chateau Jonx. near Besancon. where he died April 27, 1803, from cruelty and neglect. The negroes were roused to fury by this treachery and renewed the war. They succeeded in driving out the French in the same year that Toussaint died. Toussaint TOuverture is perhaps the most con- spicuous example of the possibilities, intellectu.xl and moral, of the pure-blooded negro, even with- out especially favoring conditions. Consult the i/e»HO!re.'! by himself (1853) ; Saint Remy, Viede Tovssai>it rOinerture (Paris, 1850) : Beard, The Life of Toussaint (London, 1853) ; Gragnon- Laeoste, Toussaint L'Ouverture, general en chef de I'nrmee de fiaint Domingtie, surnommc le premier des Noirs (1877), based on the I'Ouver- ture family papers. TOWAGE (from tow; connected with AS. icon, C4oth. tiuhan, OHG. zopan, siohan, Ger. Ziehen, to draw. Lat. ducere, to lead). Assistance in propelling or drawing rendered bj- one vessel to another. Towing is usually done by tugs, but the service may be performed bj' any sort of a vessel. A vessel thus assisted is commonly re- ferred to as a tow. A tug is not held to the strict responsibility of a common carrier, and is liable only for lack of reasonable skill in such service, and for negligence. The master of the tug is oliliged to see that the tow is properly made up, having regard to the voyage to be made : must have skill in navigation, and be reasonably familiar with the course to be fol- lowed. The master of the tow must follow all reasonable orders of the master of the tug as to steering, etc. A tug should not abandon a tow, except in cases of extreme necessity, and.