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* THUCYDIDES. 359 THUG. it breaks off in the middle of the year 411. It is also evident that the last book did not receive its final form, but there is no reason to doubt that it comes from his hand. The present di- vision into eight books was not made by the author, but by later grammarians. Thucydides is now regarded by all as the first critical historian and the greatest historian of antiquity. He brought to his undertaking a prac- tical acquaintance with politics and military science, his natural endowments fitted him to pass impartial judgment on the events that he narrates, and he emphasizes more than once the care with which he endeavored to find out the truth. His sources were for the main part ob- tained b}' personal observation or by questioning those who had been upon the ground ; but for the earlier period he depended upon his predeces- sors. His purpose being to narrate the war, he clung closely to his subject and made few digres- sions, so that we have to regret that he has noth- ing to say of literature, art, or the conditions of the people. But the military movements of the time are portrayed with a vividness which has never been equaled. In form, his history is strict- ly annalistie. the account being given by summers and by winters, so that his work suffers from his failure to group events effectively. His style is the older Attic. His periods are not polished or rounded out, and in his effort after brevity he often makes his meaning obscure and hard to reach. Yet his style was greatly admired in an- tiquity, and became the mode! of many historians in the following centuries. In his cliaracteriza- tion of the leaders in the struggle between Athena and Sparta he was most successful, and fre- quently employs with great skill speeches which he puts into their mouths. Of critical editions the most important are by Bekker (3 vols., Ber- lin, 1821) : Haase (Paris, 1846) : Hude (2 vols., Leipzig, 1898-1901). There are annotated edi- tions bv Thomas Arnold (3 vols., 3d ed., Oxford, 1847-54); Bloomfield (2 vols., London, 1842- 43) ; Kriiger (2 vols., 3d ed.. Berlin. 1861) : and Classen (8 vols., Berlin. 1862-78; frequently re- edited). English translations have been made, single volumes of the Classen edition, by Morris, Fowler, and Smith for the College Series of Greek Authors (Boston). The editions of single books are very numerous. Consult, also: the Lex-icon Thucinlidcuyn by Bftant (Geneva, 1843) ; Index Thucydideus by Von Kssen (Berlin, 1887). The best English translations of the history are by Bloomfield (3 vols., London, 1829) ; D.i'le, in the Bohn Classical Library; and Jowett, with introduction and historical notes (2 vols., Lon- don. 1881; Boston. 1883). On the speeches see Wilkins's translation (3d ed., London, 1881), and .lebb's essav in Abbott's HeUenica (London, 1880). THUG (Hind. Ihag. cheat, from Skt. sthaga, rascal). The name in Northern India of a re- ligious fraternity which committed murders in honor of Kali, (q.v. ),the wife of .Siva, and lived chiefly upon the plunder obtained from its vic- tims. In the south of India they used to live under the protection of the native chieftains in consideration of a settled contribution, and prob- ably also of a share in their booty. The Thugs were first generally known about 1800, although they existed as early as 1290. Although at the beginning of the nineteenth century they had become little more than murderers, the original religious character of their deeds survived in many ways, particularly in the bloodless char- acter of their assassination, which points back to an unbloody sacrifice in honor of the female as- pect of the destructive power of nature. They really formed a caste, as the profession was in the main hereditary, and the young Thugs were trained most carefully, although a few recruit* were admitted from without, and a considerable number of ilohanunedans joined the order. When they learned through some of their gang that per- sons of property were about to undertake a journey, they usually proposed to them, luuler the plea of safety, or for the sake of society, to travel in their company; or else they followed them. Usually thc.y threw around the neck of the victim, a cloth called the roinul, or handkerchief, with a knot in the left end, which one of the gang held at one end, while the other was seized by an accomplice. While the two Thugs drew the noose tight and pressed the head of their victim forward, a third seized him by the leg and thus threw him to the ground. If properly strangled, the sacrifice was dead before he touched the ground. The utmost care was taken to commit the murder in an unfrequented spot, and the body was buried at a spot where it was not like- ly to be found. Another class of Thugs murdered those in charge of children, whom the assassins then sold into slavery. Castes or classes exempt from the Thugs were washermen, sweepers, musicians, jjoels, blacksmiths, carpenters, oil-venders, crip- ples, lepers, bearers of the holy Ganges water, and those who had with them a cow. Neither would a true Thug kill a woman. A portion of the phnuler was usuallj- devoted to the ex- penses of religious ceremonies, and a part was often allotted for tJie widows and families of deceased Thugs. Kali was believed to have formerly cooperated with the Thugs, and to have assisted them in the disposing of the bodies of their victims by de- vouring them. But through an indiscretion of one of the fraternity, who looked back, she be- came displeased, and condemned them to bury their victims. But though she refused her assistance, she presented her worshipers with one of her teeth for a pickaxe, a rib for a knife, and the hem of her lower garment for a noose. On the faith of this legend the pickaxe was the in- strument which was held in the highest estima- tion by all the Thugs. Its fabrication was super- intended with the greatest care, and it was the subject of other ceremonials. After every mur- der the Thugs performed a special solemnity called tapioii, which was celebrated in honor of Kali. Another feast observed by the Thugs throughout India was called Kurhae Kama or Kofe, likewise in honor of Kali. The supersti- tions of the Thugs were of Hindu origin ; but they were adopted also by Jlohammedan Thugs, who sometimes identified Kali and Fatima. At variotis periods steps were taken by the native and English governments to suppress the Thugs, but it was only after 1831 that energetic measures against them were adopted by the British authorities. By 1840 they were prac- tically suppressed. Consult: Sleeman, Rama.ieeana (Calcutta, 1836) ; Thornton, Illustrations of the Bistort/