Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 17.djvu/726

* SCHOLASTICISM. 656 SCHOLL. ferrcsist without form. The hifediest forms, the human soul and supernal spirits, can exist without matter. Korm is the root of speci- fication; matter of individuation: but in this capacity matter nuist be considered in connection with (juantitative dimensions. Konn is to mat- ter as act to potency. (2) In the finite individ- ual the individuation and the abstract essence are not really, hut only virtually distinct. This gives the mind a basis for abstracting the essence — the direct universal ( universale in re) — and elaborat- ing it by comparison and reflection into the refle.K universal {universale post rem in mente). The individual is to the essence, the singular to the universal, as act to potency. (3) Essence and existence in the finite are really distinct after the analogy again of act and potency. JIathematies and physics may be here dis- missed. Scholastic physics was based on the Peripatetic and manifests its shortcomings, but together therewith an insight into physical processes and the phenomena of motion which theoretical physics of the present age cannot af- ford to despise. Psychology was with the schoolmen, as with Ari-totle, a branch of physics, a point of view to which recent pliysiological psychology has re- turned. The soul is united to the body as form to matter. The soul is therefore the root of unity and activity in the organism. From it all vital ojjeration. vegetative, sensitive, intellective, ap- petitive, locomotive, proceeds. The immediate principles of these operations are the powers or faculties, all of which are rooted in the soul, though the senses — the inner and the outer senses and the sensuous appetites — are blended with the chemical matter of the organism, on which they therefore intrinsically and essentially depend. Other powers transcend the material organism as such. and. though dependent thereon for their ob- ject matter, operate with a certain autonomy of their own. These intrinsically dependent energies are the intellect and will. Being immaterial, they manifest the immateriality of their root, the substance of the soul. The soul is, therefore, no product of matter. It is the term of the crea- tive act, and, being simple and immaterial, is necessarily incorruptible, i.e. immortal. Scholastic epistemology is based on the prin- ciple that knowledge sensuous and intellective consists in the assimilation of object to subject — an assimilation engendered by the cooperation of the two. The stimulation of the psychic cog- nitive power by the object was called the species impressa, the reaction of the faculty the species expressa. In Intel Ipctive cognition the object i.s presented through the phantasm from which the active intellect abstracts the intelligible species. In the wake of cognition follows appetition sen- sitive or intellective. The latter — the will — is like every other power necessitated as to its gen- eral object, the good as such ; though in respect to this or that good it is undetermined and in- trinsically free. Ethics was dominated by the concept of final- ity immanent in man as it is in the universe. Man's objective end is the vision of the infinite truth and the enjoyment of the infinite good, i.e. God. lie is physically free, however, to place his end in the finite, if he do he will fail of his ultimate perfection and incur unending loss. The natural law of conduct is the rellection of the eternal law in consciousness. Acts are good or bad according as they are in accord or discord with human nature in its concrete existence. Special ethics and politics unfold and apply the natural law to the special individual relations of man. There are obvious objections to the scholastic .synthesis. It is accused of being one-sided, of neglecting the historic and inductive method, of being unprogressive, of merely unfolding what was already contained in receiAed data, of bring- ing no new facts to liglit, but simply analyzing the facts at hand which it took for granted. All these and other such charges ma,y with some obvious restrictions be admitted. Nevertheless scholasticism centred the human mind on certain fundamental truths essential to the complete spiritual development of the race. Bibliography. De Wulff, Eistoire de la phi- losophie mSdievale (Paris, 1899) ; Werner, Dcr heilige Thomas von Aquino (Regensburg, 1858- 59) ; id., Die Scholastik des spiiteren ilittelalters (Vienna, 1881-87) ; id., Franz Siuirez und die Scholastik des letzten Jahrhunderts (Regens- burg, 1S60-G1) : Willmann. Gesehichte des Idea- lism us { Brunswick. 1894-97); Kleufgen. I'hiloso- phie der Vorzeit (iliinster, 186.3) ; Stcickl. Lehr- liueh der Gesehichte der Pliilosophie (JIainz, 1870) ; Gutberlet, Lehrbueh der Xat urpltilosophie ■und der Psychologic (Miinster. 1896) ; Haureau, Pliilosophie scholasiique (Paris. 1872-80); Farges, Etudes philosophiques (Paris, 1891 et seq.) ; Balmes, Fundamental Philosophy (Eng. trans, by Brownson, New York, 1850) ; Ward. Philosophy of Theism (London, 1884) ; Harper, Metaphysics of the School (ib.. 1872-84) : Riek- aby. First Principles of Knoiclcdge (ib., 1888) ; Maher, Psychology (ib., 1889) ; Boedder, Nat- ural Theology (ib., 1889) ; Driscoll, God: a Con- tribution to a Philosophy of Theism (New York, 1900) ; Urraburu, Institutiones Philosophiece (Valhidolid, 1892 et seq.). SCHOLIASTS, sko'll-asts (ilGk. (rxoXia', sdioli- azein, to write commentaries, from ax^^^o". scholion, commentary, from o-xoXij, scholc. learn- ing, school), A name applied to annotators of classical works, especially Greek. These com- mentaries, scholia, were written on the margin or between the lines of the manuscripts, and included explanations and interpretation of every kind. The earliest form of interpretation consisted of nothing more than glosses on difficult or unusual words, but with the Ale.xandrians learned com- ment in the larger sense began and continued through the Byzantine Age. In Latin we have important scholia to Terence, Vergil, Horace, Statins, and others. For a history of the Greek annotators of antiquity, consult Wilamowitz- ^Muellendorf, Herakles. introduction to vol. i. (Berlin. 1889). SCHOLL, shel, Adouf (1805-82). A German archiTologist and critic, born at Briinn, Austria, and educated at Tiibingen and Giittingen. In 1843 he was appointed director of the Art Institute in Weimar, where he was made !ibrnrian-in-chief in 1861. He wrote Die Tetralogien der attischen Tragiker (1839), Sophokles (1842), Weimars