Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 17.djvu/575

SAMUEL. same division has been made by Hebrew editors since Bomberg. In the Septuagint they are called the First and Second Books of Kings. The name is taken from (q.v.), the principal figure in the opening chapters. The books begin with the high-priesthood of Eli and close with the death of David; four main divisions may be noted: (1) the establishment of the monarchy by Samuel (I. i.-xv.); (2) the narrative of Saul and David and the history of Saul's reign to his death (I. xvi.-II. viii.); (3) David's reign (II. ix.-xx.); (4) an appendix (II. xxi.-xxiv.). The period covered by the work is, roughly, one-hundred years, c.1077-977

In the opinion of modern critics the books were composed according to the general plan of ancient historiography; that is, they are a compilation of several documents more or less skillfully pieced together with editorial comment and additions revealing the point of view from which the compiler or compilers regarded the past. The compilatory hypothesis accounts for alleged duplication of incidents, contradictions, and inconsistencies in the work as it stands. For example, it is believed that we have two accounts of the choice of Saul as king, two versions of David's introduction to Saul, two narratives of the death of Saul; but little effort seems to have been made to harmonize the chief sources at the disposal of the compiler of these sources: the older is characterized by its graphic style and by the simple straightforward manner in which events are narrated, the later by the introduction of religious views which reflect the standards of a later age and by judgment of events according to those standards. The older narrative may be assigned approximately to the ninth century and is the work of a writer who belongs to the same school as the Yahwist in the Hexateuch (see ); the later one belongs to the eighth century and bears traces of the school of thought to be distinguished in the Elohist. Some scholars (as Budde) go so far as to identify these two narratives with the Yahwist and Elohist respectively, but this is not probable. The first combination of the two sources by a redaction took place in the seventh century before the reforms instituted by Josiah ( 621), but in the present form of the two books we may detect a subsequent recension made with the view of bringing the narrative into accord with the religious standpoint of Deuteronomy. This was done mainly by the addition of summaries at the end of important sections and by the expansion of certain incidents which lent themselves to a ‘homiletical’ sentiment. Other additions were made by a later school of editors of the fifth and fourth' centuries, while after the separation of the Books of Samuel from the Books of Kings, the appendix (II. Sam. xxi.-xxiv.) was added to the former embodying miscellaneous fragments, and to this late period likewise belongs the insertion of the psalm known as the Song of Hannah (I. Sam. ii. 1-10).

For the detailed analysis, the distribution of the two main sources, and other problems, consult the commentaries of Thenius-Löhr (Leipzig, 1898); Klostermann (Munich, 1887); Keil (Leipzig, 1875); H. P. Smith (International Critical Commentary, New York, 1899); the introductions to the Old Testament by Driver, Kuenen, Cornill, Bleek-Wellhausen, and Kautzsch;

Wellhausen, Text der Bücher Samuelis (Berlin, 1871); Driver, The Hebrew Text of Samuel (Oxford, 1890); Budde, Richter und Samuel (Giessen, 1890); Budde's text in the Sacred Books of the Old Testament (Leipzig, 1894). See  SAMURAI, (Jap., guard). The military clubs in Japan during the feudal period, or a member of that class. Originally the term denoted the soldiers who guarded the Mikado's Palace; later it was applied to the whole military system and included: (1) the shōgun or commander-in-chief; (2) the daimios or territorial nobles; and (3) their retainers, the privileged two-sworded men, the lighting men, the gentlemen, and the scholars of the country. In 1868 the shogunate, and in 1871 the whole feudal system were abolished; the daimios returned their lands to the Emperor, and they and their retainers were granted pensions. The practice of wearing swords was prohibited. Finally in 1878 the names daimio and samurai were changed to kwazokŭ or ‘nobility,’ and shizoki or ‘gentry’ respectively. See ;. Consult Knapp, Feudal and Modern Japan (Boston, 1876).  SAMVAT, (abbreviated form of Skt. saṁvatsara, year). The most important system of reckoning time in India. The era is in use in Northern India generally except in Bengal. According to native tradition, the Samvat year was introduced by King (q.v.) in  57. A Samvat given date represents the year last completed. Christian dates are reduced to Samvat by adding 57 to the Christian year. Consult Sewell and Dikshit, The Indian Calendar (London, 1896).  SANA, or SANAA,. The capital of the Turkish Vilayet of Yemen, Arabia, situated in a beautiful valley at an altitude of 7300 feet (Map: in Asia, Q 12). The city is surrounded by high brick walls, and dominated by the fortress of Jebal Nigcim. The old white-washed palace of the Imams, now the residence of the Turkish Governor, is a prominent feature. There are numerous mosques, public baths, and caravanserais. The city has excellent bazaars, and there is a flourishing trade in aloes, skins, coffee, indigo, and gum arabic. There are manufactures of carpets, arms, jewelry, silks, and cottons. Sana was taken by the Turks in 1872. Population, estimated at 50,000.  SAN ANDRÉS TUXTLA,. A Mexican town of the State of Vera Cruz, 83 miles southeast of the city of that name and 16 miles from the Gulf coast (Map:, L 8). The town is situated in a fertile valley producing in abundance maize, sugar cane, cotton, coffee, and other tropical products. Its population in 1895 was 8855.  SAN AN′GELO. A town and the county-seat of Tom Green County, Texas, 299 miles northwest of Austin; on a branch of the Concho River, and on the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Railroad (Map:, D 4). It is important chiefly as a shipping centre for a cattle-raising and farming section, and has some manufactures. Cattle, wool, and pecans are the principal articles of commerce. Population, in 1890, 2615; in 1900, about 4000.  SAN ANTO′NIO. The largest city of Texas, situated 80 miles south by west of the State capital, Austin (Map:, E 5). The Southern Pacific, the International and Great 