Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 17.djvu/52

REPOUSSE. This art is most successfully applied to such malleable metals as gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead. A similar effect, though lacking in artistic merit and in individuality, is produced by stamping with dies. See ; .  REP′PLIER, (1855—). An American essayist of French descent, born in Philadelphia, Pa., April 1, 1855. Miss Repplier was educated at the Convent of the Sacred Heart at Torresdale, Pa. She is known for her travels and for many articles in such magazines as Scribner's and the Atlantic Monthly. Her lively essay style often deals with serious subjects in a vein of light, humorous banter, sometimes tinged with extravagant and witty irony. Her published volumes include: Books and Men (1888); Points of View (1892); Essays in Miniature (1892); a Book of Famous Verse (edited, 1892); Essays in Idleness (1893), perhaps her most popular work; In the Dozy Hours, and Other Papers (1894); Varia (1897); Philadelphia: The Place and the People (1898); The Fireside Sphinx (1901).  REPRESENTATION (Lat. repræsentatio, from repræsentare, to represent, from re-, back again, anew + præsentare, to present, from præsens, present, pres. part, of præesse, to be at hand, to be before, from præ before + esse, to be). In political science, the agency through which the collective will of the people is exercised. In the city States of Greece and Italy, where pure democracies prevailed, all the citizens, in theory at least, attended the public assemblies. The comparatively small geographical area of the city State and the relatively small number of persons vested with the full rights of citizenship made it possible to govern without resort to the agency of representation. Besides, government was a simple matter then as compared with the government of a modern community, and hence the body of citizens meeting at intervals could without difficulty frame the few police regulations that were necessary and administer justice among the inhabitants. The agency of representation was first extensively employed by the Church in the ecumenical councils which it called from time to time, and this may have led to its more general employment for purposes of civil government. The idea of political representation, like many other political institutions, was a contribution of the Teutonic nations, by whom it was employed in a rude way in their popular assemblies. The first European legislature founded on the principle of representation was the Parliament of England. (See .) In 1302 Philip the Fair, King of France, summoned representatives of the three estates, nobility, clergy, and commons, to form the (q.v.). In Aragon the (q.v.) acquired a very important share in the government, and grew to be powerful enough to impose its will upon the monarch. In other countries of Europe about the same time national representative bodies were summoned by royal authority. The mediæval idea of representation was representation of classes and interests rather than of numbers, which is the basis of the modern idea. Each order had its own representatives, who sat apart and carried on their work independently, one class thus being able to neutralize the action of the others. A distinction was made in England between rural and urban constituencies, each having its own representatives, and this is still perpetuated.

With regard to the principle of representation it may be said that the civilized nations have reached a consensus that the distribution of representatives, in one branch of the legislature at least, should be on the basis of the whole population, though some regard is frequently paid to permanent administrative or local divisions, partly for historical reasons and partly as a concession to local consciousness. Thus it is a common provision in national constitutions that each State or other division shall have at least one representative in the national legislature, although on the basis of population alone it would not be so entitled. (See section on Government, under the various countries.) In the upper chambers of lawmaking bodies throughout the world there is considerable diversity in the principle of representation. See . As regards the relation of the representative to his constituency, a popular view is that the representative is the mouthpiece of his constituency and subject to their instructions. According to this view he has no independent judgment, and cannot follow the convictions which he may have reached from the most exhaustive study and reflection, if the will of his constituency be otherwise. Moreover, their own local interests are to be preferred to those of the country at large, and it is his first and foremost duty to champion those interests in preference to the national interests. A sounder view regards the representative as the interpreter of the common consciousness of right and reason. According to this view the representative is not bound by the will of his constituency, but by research and reason endeavors to discover what the general good requires. The question has been much discussed as to whether a system of representation based on mere numbers is an ideal one or even a just one. By many it is contended that an equitable system of representation would take into consideration various interests, economic, industrial, social, and religious as well as political. They insist that provision should be made for special representation of such classes as free-traders, single-tax adherents, labor organizations, civic federations, business leagues, chambers of commerce, the advocates of temperance and prohibition, socialists, etc. The tremendous tendency toward class differentiation and the growing popularity of independent movements in politics, it is said, make a reform of the present system of representation highly desirable so as to harmonize conflicting interests, to enable each class to show the people what its interests are, and to defend them against attack.

By the present system, the political party having a minority of voters in a given electoral district is generally unrepresented in the government, notwithstanding the fact that its numerical strength may lack but a few votes of equaling the party which secures the entire representation. As a result of this system, it frequently happens that the minority party in a State is inadequately represented in the State legislature or in Congress. To remedy these inequalities various methods have been proposed, and in some cases attempted. Of the more important of these the first to be mentioned