Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 17.djvu/426

* RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 386 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. of Nadson (1862-87), whose themes are the sor- rows of his own life. Poets like Minsky, Kofauoir, ilereshkovski, Balmoiit, Aiidreyevski, turni'd into Decadents and Symholists. Among the cliain|)ions of liberal tlioufflit most prominent is the pliiloso- pher, critic, and po<;t Vladimir Solovyofl' (1853- I!)00). Another foe of obscurantism is ilenshikolf, a follower and personal .friend of Tolstoy. At present Russian thought turns to the dis- cussion of material problems, the strides of capi- talism being vigorously combated on sociological grounds by Slikhailovski. Gorky (q.v. ) (pseu- donym of A. Pyeshkoff) depicts the life of the lowest scums of city life, paupers, and vaga- bonds. Other ]irominent names among writers of this class arc Ti-licklioff and Melshin (pseudonym of P. Yakuboviteh ), the latter of whom had spent a dozen years in Siberian. exile. Melshin's From the World of Outcasts, describing prison life as he saw it, has been unanimously assigned a place of honor hy the side of Dostoyevski's Memoirs from a Dead Bouse, while his poems mark him as the most eminent poet-thinker of Russia at present. FoLK-LoRE. Probably no other nation pos- sesses a more remarkable wealth of folk-lore than Russia. The proverbs and the riddles run into the th(nisands, the best collections being those of Dahl, I'roverhs of the Russian People (new ed., Saint Petersburg, 1870), and Ladovnikofl". Riddles of the Russian People (ib., 1876). There are several collections of fairy-tales, the most satis- factory being that of Afanasyeff, Russian Popu- lar Tales (3d ed., Moscow, 1897). There are ritual songs and incantations for every event of life from birth to burial. The lyric songs mirror the whole of the Russian character. Those of Northern Russia are characterized by native strength ; those of the south are graceful, delicate, and jdaintive. The latest work on the subject is by Loholevski. (J real Russian Folk-Sonr/s (7 vols.. Saint Petersburg, 18l).5 et seq. ). The epic songs or bi/linas (q.v.) date from legendary times to the nineteenth century, but those dealing with the past are the best. These have appeared in col- lections liy Kireyevski ( 10 vols.. Saint Peters- burg, 1860-74), Rybnikoff (4 vols., Petrozavodsk, 1801-67), Hilferd'ing (Saint Petersburg, 1873), and Avenarius (5th ed., Moscow, 1898). Consult: Ranibaud, La Russie cpique (Paris, 1876) ; Ralston, The Songs of the Russian People (London. 1872); id., Russian Folk-Tales (ib., 1873) ; Hapgood, Epic Songs of Russia (New York, 1887) ; Wolkonsliy, Pictures of Russian History and Russian Literature (Boston, 1808) ; Bazan, Russia, Its People and Its Literature (Chicago, 1890) ; Turner, Studies in Russian Lit- erature (London, 1892) ; id.. Modern Novelists of Russia (ib., 1890) ; Waliszewski, History of Rus- sian Literature (New York, 1900) ; Wiener, Anfholofiy of Russian Literature (ib., 1903) ; Reinholdt, GescMchte der russischen Littera- tur (Leipzig, 1886) ; Lgger, La littdrature russe ( I'aris, 1892) : De Vogii^, Le roman russe (4th ed., ib., 1897) ; Dupuy, Les grands maitres de la literature russe au XlXidme Steele (ib., 1885). RUSSIAN MUSIC. See Slavonic Music. RUSSIAN TURKESTAN. See Turkestan. RUSSNIAKS. See Ruthenians. RUSSO-TURKISH WAR (1877-78). A con- flict between lUis.sia ami the Ottoman Empire, growing out of the condition of the Balkan eimn- trics and involving an etlort on the part of Russia to extend her dominion in the direction of the Mediterranean. (See Eastern Question.) In 187.5-7U risings against Turkish misrule broke out iu Bosnia and Herzegovina. Encouraged by Servia and Jlontencgro, and probably by Russia, the s])irit of revolt spread. The Bulgarian atrocities in May, 1876, called the attention of the Western Powers in a forcible manner to the state of all'airs in the Balkan provinces, (lortcha- koir, Andri'issy, and Bisraai'ck drew up the so- called Berlin Memorandum, but the habitual failure of the Powers to agree in their action pre- vented the diplomatic representations made at Constantinople from having any result. Servia and Montenegro began open war against the Porte in Julj', 1876. England supported the Porte in spite of the vigorous assaults upon the Turkish policy by Gladstone. Austria-Hungary and Germany avoided committing themselves to any policy. The Magyars openly expressed sym- pathy ith the Turks. Servia succumbed to the overwhelming forces of Turkey' in October, but the Montenegrins, assured doubtless of Russian support, kept the field. After sounding the other Powers in regard to their attitude and finding no inclination to guarantee reforms in Turkey, Russia concluded a treaty with Rumania in A])ril, 1877, and, announcing herself as the protector of the Balkan Christians, declared war against the Ottoman Empire on the 24th. The advance of the Russians was rapid. The Danube was crossed at Galatz. on June 22d. by a portion of the forces, and on June 27th the main army crossed at Simnitza, into Bulgaria. In .July the Czar joined the army in the field of operations. General Gurko took possession of Tirnova on July 7th, and a week later he crossed the Balkans. The Russian lines faced eastward toward Rustehuk, Rasgrad, and Shumla; southward from Tirnova to the Sliipka Pass; and westward toward the Osma and Vid rivers. The Turkish Army of the Danube on the east was commanded by ilehemet AH ; Reuf Pasha commanded the Army of the Balkans, to which was intrusted the defense of the Shipka Pass, but was soon superseded on ac- count of inefficiency by Suleiman Pasha. Osman Pasha took up a strong position at Plevna (q.v.) on the right flank of the Russians. 'The unex- pected and desperate resistance offered by Osman Pasha arrested the Russian advance. On July 30th he beat back a division of the army of the Grand Duke Nicholas, under General Kriidener, with great sl.aughter. Early in September the attack was renewed in great force by the Russians and Rumanians, but Osman held his own, and a desperate assault on the 11th proved disastrous to the assailants. The Russians then decided to invest the place. In the meanwhile. General Gurko, who had been advancing upon Adrianople, was defeated by Suleiman Pasha at Eski-Zagra, and drien into the Shipka Pass, where he suc- ceeded in holding bis ground against the furious attacks of Suleiman. In August and September Meheniet Ali operated successfully against the Russian left under the Crown Prince Alexander in the region of the River Loin. Everything now depended upon the ability of Osman Pasha to hold out at Plevna. General Gurko was sent to