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* RUSSIA. 381 RUSSIA. at the close of the China-Japan War of 1894-95, Russia was able to obtain from China a lease (Jlaroli 27, 1898) for twonlyflve years of the Kwang-tung Peninsula, wliieh was made a prov- ince. Here are the stronj,' naval station of Port Arthur and the new port of Ualny, built by Russia. By the treaty 'with China providinj; for the con- struetion of the ilanehurian Kaihvay, which is really a part of the great Siberian system, Russia maintains a military oceujianey of Manchuria. After the Boxer troubles in Cliina in 1900, this oc- cupation, the original pretext of which was the protection of the railway, was so strength- ened as to cause apprehension on the part of other nations that Russia was about to carry out in ilanchuria her traditional Asiatic policy of absorption of such provinces belonging to weaker powers as might be available. In I'eply to the protests of the powers the Russian Govern- ment denied any such intention and asserted that the Russian troops would retire as soon as the state of the country would permit, but at the close of 1903 it had become evident that the Rus- sian occupation of Manchuria was to be a permanency. This aggressive advance of Russia has caused strained relations with Japan. In recent years Russia has succeeded in great meas- ure in bringing Persia under her intluence. While thus extending the scope of her activities in Asia, Russia has not lost sight of her traditional policy of enlarging her possessions in Europe. It is the dream of Russian patriots to bring the whole Slavic world under the sceptre of the Czar (see Panslavism) and to make good the claim of Russia as successor to the Byzantine or Greek Empire, in her capacity as the great Greek Cliris- tian power, by the occupation of Constantinople. In the internal affairs of the country the Russian nationalists have continued to be dominant, and the Russianizing of Poland. Finland, and other provinces has been pushed forward unsparingly. The liberal agitation, which has its centre and strongest impulse in the universities and which was supposed for a few years to have become dormant, has reawakened since the opening of the twentieth century and assumed an insistent atti- tude which renews the uncertainty as to the future of the Russian autocracy. In 1899 an order of the Czar created a commission to abolish transporta- tion of criminals and substitute punishment by the courts, and to reform the whole system of punish- ment for crime. In 1898 a rescript of the Czar to the governments of the civilized powers on the subject of international peace led to the assem- bling in 1899 of the Hague Peace Conference (q.v.). Bibliography. General: Descriptive. Baer and Helmersen, Beitriiqe zur Kenntnis dcs rt/s- sischen Reichs (Saint' Petersburg, 1839-1900); Erman, Archiv fur die wissenschaftliche Knndc von Riisslmul (2.5 vols., Berlin, 1841-G7) ; Schnitzler, L'empire des Tsars (Paris, 1856- 69) ; Reclus, Georrrriphie universellc, vols, v., vi. (ib., 1880-81) ; Geddie. The Russian Empire (ib., 1885) ; Wallace, Russia (2d ed., London, 1888) ; Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians, trans, by Ragozin (New York, 1893-94); Munro. Rise of the Russian Empire (Boston, 1900) ; Brueggen, Das heutigr Russland (Leipzig. 1902) ; Nor- man, All the Russias (New York, 1902) ; Gerrare, Greater Russia, the Continental Empire of the Old World (ib., 1903) ; and for Asiatic Russio, Lansdell, Russian Ventral Asia (ib., 1885); Al- brecht, Russisch dntraldsiin (Hamburg, 1896); Wright, .l.siu/ic Russia (New York, 19U.'I); and the authorities referred to under Siiikhia. Among the many books of travel and studies of Russian life and customs may be mentioned: TurgenicfT, La Russic et les Russes { Paris, 1847) ; Leger, Russcs et slaves: etudes politii/ucs ct littcraires (ib., 1890) ; Brandes. liiipri ssiuiw of Russia (Eng. trans., New York, 1889) ; .Moltke, liricfe aus Russland (4th ed., Ik-rlin, 1893) ; Noble, Russia anil the Russians (Boston, 1893) ; Palmer, U'ussion Life in Town imd Counlri/ (New York, 1901) ; Gautier, Travels in Russia, trans. (ib., 1903) ; Landor, Across Coveted Lands (ib., 1903). Civilization : Social Cox»itions. Seinenoff, The Emancipation of Peasants (vol. i.. Saint Petersburg, 1889) ; Roskosclnuig, Das armc Russland (Leipzig, 1890) ; Stepniak, Dcr russi- selu- Bauer (Stuttgart, 1892) ; id., Kimj titork and Kin(j Fox (London, 1896) ; Foutke, Ulav or Saxon: a tStudij of the Grouth and Trnilnicies of Russian Civilization (London, 1899) ; Leh- man and Parvus, Das hunyermh: Russland (Stuttgart, 1900) ; Milionkofl. Essai sur C/iis- toire de la eivitisation russe (Paris. 1901). Economic ano Industrial Development: Finance. Besobrasoff, Etudes sur I'economic natiomile de la Russie (Saint Petersburg, 1883- 86) ; .Stieda, Aus der Wirtsehaftstatistik (Jena, 1883) ; Matthai, Die Wirtsrhafllichcn lliilfsquel- len Russlands (Dresden, 1883-85) : The Indus- tries, Manufnelures, and Trade of Ifussia, ]iub- lished by the Ministry of Finance. English trans- lation edited by Crawford (Saint I'etersburg, 1893) ; Morea, Kommerzielle Geographie Russ- lands (Saint Petersburg, 1894); Sworin. All Russia: a Dircetor;/ of Industries, Agriculture, and. Administration (Saint Petersburg, 1895), in Russian ; Wakeiield, Future Trade in the Far East (London, 1896); Verstraete. La Russie industrielle (Paris, 1897) ; Movs. Die Finanzen Russlands (Berlin, 1896) ; Tug;>n-Baranovsky, The Russian Factory: Past and Present (Sa'int Petersburg, 1898), in Russian; Koshkarotf, The Money Circulation in Russia (ib., 1898), in Rus- sian; Kovalevsky, Le rdyimc cconomique de la Russie (Paris, 1898) ; id.. La Russic 6 la fin dti XlXhne sieele (ib., 1900). Politics. •Stunnn. Russia in Central Asia (London, 1885) ; Tikhomirov. Russia, Political and liocial, trans. (2d ed., ib., 1892); Curzon. rrohkms of the Far East (London, 1894) ; Thompson, Russian Polities (ib., 1895); Leroy- Beaulieu. Etudes russes et europecnnrs (Paris, 1897) ; Krausse. Russia in Asia, LJ')S-IS!lfl (ib., 1899) ; Jlahan, The Problem of Asia (Boston, 1900) ; Leroy-Beaulieu. La rdnovation de I'Asie (Paris, 1900) ; Lebeder, Russcs et Anglais en Asie centrale, trans, (ib.. 1900) ; Colquhoun, Rus- sia Against India (New York. 1900) ; Seignobos, A Political History of Contemporary Europe, trans. (London. 1900) ; Howard. Prrsoiirrs of Russia (New York. 1903) ; Kovalevsky. Russian Political Institutions (Chicago. 1903). Ethnology. Busclien. licviilkerung des rus- sisehen Kaiserreichs (Gntha, 1862) ; Duehinski, Pen pies nrySs ct tourans (Paris, 1804) ; Ritji^pb, Die Ethnographic Russlands (Gotha. 1877) ; Latham, Russian and Turk (London, 1878);