Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 16.djvu/761

RAILWAYS. of 73.5 miles, with gradients ranging from 1 in 14⅓ up to 1 in 5; and the upper 61.5 miles are to be in tunnel, while the final ascent to the summit is to be effected by a vertical lift of 241 feet. The central rack rails, 11½ feet long, are joined together at their ends by fish-plates, like ordinary flat-bottomed rails. A brake is provided, which encircles and grips the widened-out head of the rack.

The Abt system consists essentially of two or three steel rack bars, from 11-16 inch to 1 13-16 inches thick, and 2 to 4⅓ inches deep, placed nearly two inches apart, and so arranged that the teeth are not opposite each other, but as it were break joints, causing the cog-wheels to engage in a tooth in front on one rack before leaving the tooth behind on the adjacent rack, which renders the motion smoother, and increases the security of the trains in descending, besides proportioning the strength of the rack to the steepness of the gradient by the addition of one or two bars. The Generoso railway in Italy and the Rothorn railway in Switzerland, 52.3 miles and 44.5 miles long, rising 4326 feet and 5515 feet, with ruling gradients of 1 in 4.55 and 1 in 5, and constructed in 1889-90 and 1891, respectively, are laid to a gauge of 2 feet 7½ inches with cast-steel sleepers, and provided with a double Abt rack, in which cog-wheels on the driving axles work. The system has also been extended to mountain lines in several other countries, as for instance, the Manitou and Pike's Peak Railway in Colorado, of standard gauge, rising 7552 feet in a length of 8¾ miles, with a maximum gradient of 1 in 4.



Instances of the application of electricity as the motive power on mountain railways laid with the Abt rack, where water-power is readily available for generating the electrical current, are furnished by the Mont Salève Railway near Geneva, and the Gornergrat Railway ascending from Zermatt. These railways, constructed in 1891 and 1896-98, respectively, have lengths of 53.5 miles and 54.5 miles, with rises of 2363 feet and 4600 feet, and are laid to the meter gauge, with gradients of 1 in 4 and 1 in 5, and a double line of rack. In all these rack railways, special care is always taken to anchor the track firmly down into the solid ground, so as to prevent its creeping gradually downhill under the pressure of the cog-wheels on the rack.

and will he found treated under their own heads.

. Consult Poor's Manual of Railroads (New York, annual); Annual Reports of the Interstate Commerce Commission (Washington, D. C.); Hadley, Railway Transportation; Its History and Its Laws (New York, 1885). See  RAILWAY TRAINMEN,. See.  RAIMONDI,, (1826-90). An Italian geographer and naturalist, born in Milan. In 1850 he went to Peru, and was professor of botany in the University of Lima from 1862 to 1871. During this time he explored the country and gathered material for his proposed exhaustive work on the geography, botany, zoölogy, and ethnology of Peru. Three volumes on geography were published (1874-76-80) and called El Perú, but a part of the work was destroyed when Lima was captured in the Chilean War, and Raimondi died before completing it. His manuscripts became the property of the Lima Geographical Society.  RAIMONDI, (?-c.l534). The chief Italian line engraver of the Renaissance. The year of his birth is unknown, but he was a native of Bologna, where he studied engraving under Francia, devoting himself at first to niello. At the beginning of the fifteenth century we find him executing line engravings after the paintings of Francia, but also after his own designs. Even in these early prints the influence of the German engravers, like Schongauer, is evident, particularly in the landscape backgrounds. Greatly impressed by Dürer's engravings, he copied about eighty of his woodcuts and copper plates in line engraving, even counterfeiting Dürer's signature. He thus pirated without acknowledgment the entire Life of the Virgin and the Little Passion. The generally accepted account, derived from Vasari, of how Dürer obtained redress from the Venetian Government is improbable, since the first series was not published until after Dürer's visit to Venice in 1506.
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Until 1510 Raimondi resided at Bologna, with occasional visits to Venice, but in that year he seems to have been at Florence, since it was the date of his celebrated engraving, “Les grimpeurs,” after Michelangelo's cartoon, the “Battle of Anghiari,” the background of which was taken from Lucas van Leyden. He was then probably on the road to Rome, where he henceforth devoted himself to the reproduction of the works of Raphael. The latter even sketched designs for him, and himself added the finishing touches to the plates. Marcantonio carried out these designs with great vigor and charm, rendering, as no other has done, the forms of Raphael, not only in line, but in spirit. Among the best of his works executed after Raphael were: the “Murder of the Innocents;” “Quos Ego” (Neptune riding on a shell); “Lucretia;” the “Judgment of Paris;” “Adam and Eve;” etc. After Raphael's death he engraved after Giulio Romano, notably a “Bacchus and Ariadne;” and after the antique, which he was largely instrumental in popularizing. His engraving of Giulio's illustrations of Aretino's Sonnetti lussuriosi caused his imprisonment by Clement VII., and he was ruined by the sack of Rome in 1527, when he was held