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* PBOCTOB. 429 PRODUCTTJS. In 1889 he entered the Cabinet of President Har- rison as Secretary of War, resigning in 1891 to accept an appointment as United States Senator. He was elected for a full term of six years in 1893, and was reelected in 1899. Early" in 1898 he visited Cuba to inform himself as to condi- tions in the ishand, and on the information ob- tained by him. especially regarding Weyler's reconcentrado system, the lIcKinley Administra- tion's decision to adopt a policy of intervention is said to have been largely based. PROCTOR, Richard AxTHOXT (1837-88). An English astronomer, born in Chelsea. He was educated at King's College, London, and at Cam- bridge. He devoted himself for some time to literary pursuits and wrote articles for the Popular Science Reiieic and other magazines. He edited the Proceedings of the Royal Astrono- mical Society in 1872-73; constructed star charts and made researches into the transits of Venus in 1874. He visited America and lectured in 1873-74, 1875-76. 1881. and 1884, when he settled in Missouri. He removed to Florida in 1887, but was summoned on business to England in 1888. He died in Xew York on his way to Eng- land. He was one of the greatest pnpularizers of science. Among his works are Saturn and His Sys- tem (186.5); Half Hours with the Telescope (1S68) : Other Wo}-lds than Ours (1870) : Tran- sits of Tetnis (1874) ; A Treatise on the Cycloid, etc. (1878); The Romance of Astronomy (1880); Hereditary Traits (1882); The Great Pyramid (1883); yature Studies (1883). PROCULIANS. A school or sect of Roman juii^ts during the first two centuries of the Christian Era. Its origin was ascribed to Labeo, the most distinguished jurist of the Augustan age and head of one of the Roman law-schools, as the origin of the rival Sabinian sect was ascribed to Capito. head of another law-school. Each sect, how- ever, took its name from a successor of its founder : the Proculians from Proculus, who was head, after the elder Xerva, of the law-school establish- ed by Labeo. Among the noted Proculians were the younger Xerva and Pegasus in the first cen- tury, the younger Celsus and Xeratius in the second. Pomponius declares that Labeo was in- clined to introduce innovations, while Capito was more conservative; but there is no evidence, in the recorded differences of opinion between the schools in the second century, of any such per- manent line of division. See Civil L.w and Sabixi.xs; and for literature, consult Muir- head, Historical Introduction to the Private Law of Hume (•2d ed.. Edinburgh. 1899). PROCURATOR-FISCAL. In Scotland, a public prosecutor, corresponding somewhat to the district or prosecuting attornevs in the United States. PRODUCE EXCHANGE. See Exchange. PRODUCTION (Lat. productio. a lengthen- ing, from produrcre, to lead forth, from pro. be- fore, for -f ducere. to lead). One of the divisions of jmlitical economy devoted mainly to the consid- eration of the factors which affect the amount of wealth produced. From the standpoint of pro- duction the measure of economic efficiency is the extent of the product. Human progress is measured, in the words of Carey, "by man's con- trol over nature." The greater this" control, the larger the volume of products available for man's use, the higher is the scale of develop- ment. Political economy starts with the thesis that natural forces (land), human energy (la- bor), and accumulated wealth (capital") are united in production. The economics of produc- tion looks to the maximum result from this con- junction of forces. As land is not reproducible, progress is measured by the degree of utilization of natural forces for human ends. Labor in like manner in relation to production fulfills its function most effectively when it is most fullv employed and when it is most efficient. From thi's standpoint such developments as extend the field of employment and all measures which promote the productive efficiency of the individual laborer and improve the organization of labor are steps in progress. Since capital becomes more efficient as it grows in volume, economics, from the stand- point of production, looks to the development of capital, and in particular is concerned with all that promotes saving the accumulation of capital for future use. For a long time the ideas here set forth domi- nated the treatment of political economy. Con- sciously or uncon.sciously, its devotees felt that human welfare was bound up with the multipli- cation of products. Of late years a reaction has set in, the interest in economics as repre- sented in later writers having shifted from the question of how to produce the largest quantity of goods to that of how under our present social organization these goods are to be distributed in the form of rent, interest, profits, and wages to those who share in the production of the goods. See Consumption; Distbibutiox ; Exchange; Political Economy. PRODUCTUS (Lat. productus, prolonged, led forward, p.p. of product re, to lead forward, pro- duce ). An important genus of fossil brachiopods found in Upper Devonian and especially in Car- boniferous rocks. The shells are usually semi- circular in outline, with straight hinge-line, con- cave or flat dorsal and very convex ventral valve, both of «hich are often much produced anteriorly. The beak of the dorsal valve is depressed, while that of the ventral valve is very prominent and often projects far behind the hinge-line. The outer surface has radial or concentric wTinkles and the ventral valve has generally a number of long curved hollow spines by which the shell was anchored to the muddy or sandy bottom. The genus Productus is a well-known index fossil of the Carboniferous system. Productus semireticic- latus of the Subcarboniferous limestone has been found in almost all partes of the world; it is per- haps the most widely distributed fossil mollusk known. Another species. Productus horridus, is characteristic of the coal measures. Productus <ji(liniteus. with a width of six to ten inciies, is the largest brachiopod knowTi. A number of allied genera of interest are: Productella, the Devonian ancestor of Productus. a less degenerate type with cardinal area and teeth ; Prohoscidclla. a Carboniferous phylogerontie type in which the an- terior portion of the ventral valve is much pro- duced to form a sort of siphonal tube; Stropha- losia, a degenerate type, found in the Devonian and Carboniferous, which by cementation of its ventral valve to foreign objects has lost its s,Tn- metry of form. Consult tlall and Clarke, "In- troduction to the Study of the Genera of Palieozoie