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* PITTS. 77 PITTS. which he found himself compelled to offer every opposition. For the tirst year which succeeded the publication of the concordat, no occasion of difficulty arose: but conflict of principles was in the end inevitable. In 1804 Bonaparte, having resolved on assuming the Imperial crown, in- vited Pius to come to Paris for the purpose of crowning him, and the Pope, although with much hesitation, consented. He took advantage of his visit to demand the recall or modification of the articles of the code, but without success; and al- though, during his visit to Paris, he was treated with great distinction and reverence, his relations with Xapoleon from that date began to assume a less friendly character. The French Emperor ■ now proceeded from one petty outrage to another, imtil finally, in February, 1808, the French troops, under General Miollis, entered Rome and took possession of the Castle of Sant' Angelo, and on April 2d a decree was issued annexing the provinces of Ancona, Fermo, LTrbino, and ilacerata to the Kingdom of Italy. Pius, besides protesting against the usurpation, declared him- self a prisoner in the French hands, and confined himself to his palace. Finally (May 17, 1809) the usurpation was consummated by a decree annexing Rome and all the remaining Papal territory to the French Empire. This was the signal for the Pope's abandoning his policy of forbearance. On .June 10th Pius issued a bull of excommunication, directed (without naming Xapoleon) against the perpetrators and abettors of the invasion of the rights and the territory of the Holy See. Soon afterwards the French Emperor ordered the removal of the Pope from Rome; and Pius, without ofl'ering any resistance beyond the declaration that he yielded to force, was removed, first to Florence, then to Grenoble, thence for a longer time to Savona, whence, in June. 1812, he was finally transferred to Fon- tainebleau. During this prolonged captivity Pius firmly but quietly resisted every effort to compel or seduce him from his policy. At Fontainebleau he was treated with much external respect; and on Xapoleon's return from the Russian cam- paign, in December, 1812. orders were given that the cardinals, with certain exceptions, should be admitted to the presence of the Pope. Under much pressure, both from the Emperor himself and from the ecclesiastics to whom the Emperor confided his plans. Pius was induced to sign a new concordat, an important provision of which was the recognition of the annexation of the Roman States to the Empire. Having obtained the concession. Xapoleon at once pennitted the absent cardinals to return, and of these many remonstrated so earnestly against the concordat that, on March 24th. Pius wrote to revoke his consent. Xapoleon took no notice of the revoca- tion ; nor was it till after the disasters of 1813 that he began to seek an accommodation. Pius refused to treat imtil he should be restored to Rome; and on .January 22, 1814. orders were sent for his immediate return to his capital. Unat- tended by his cardinals, he was escorted to Italy, and remained at Cesena until the campaign of the spring of 1814 placed Paris in the hands of the Allies, when Pius reentered Rome amid the gratulations of the people. During the Hundred Days he was again compelled to leave it ; hut. after the campaign of Waterloo, he finally resumed possession, which was undis- turbed for the rest of his life, and extended to the whole of the ancient territory, including the legations. His last years ' were devoted to measures of internal administration, and marked by much wisdom and moderation. Pius repressed with great vigor the disorder and brigandage which the long wars had encouraged, and the secret societies, especially that of the Carbonari (q.v.). In 1814 he formally restored the Order of Jesuits (q.v.). His private life was a model of gentleness, simplicity, and benev- olence. Consult his Life by Mary Allies (Lon- don, 1901) ; Cardinal Pacca's Historical Mpmoirs (Eng. trans, by Sir George Head, London, 1850) ; Artaud, Histoire du pape Pie Vll. (2 vols., Paris, 1836) ; D'Haussonville, L'eglise romaine et le premier empire (5 vols., 5th ed., Paris, 1870) ; Celani. II viagffio di Pio Til. a Parigi (Rome, 1893). — Pirs VIII., Pope 1829- 30, Francesco Xaverio Castiglioni. He was born at Cingoli, near Ancona, in 1761. He held in succession the bishoprics of Montalto, Cesena, and Frascati, and was made cardinal in 1816. During his brief pontificate he opposed the slave- trade in Brazil, civil marriages in Prussia, and the attacks on the Church emanating from Free- masons and Bible societies. Consult: Artaud, Histoire du pape Pie Till. (Paris, 1844) ; Wise- man, Recollections of the Last Four Popes (Lon- don, 1858). Pius IX., Pope 1846-78, Count Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti. He was born at Sinigaglia, May 13, 1792, and intended to enter the Papal Guards, but symptoms of an epileptic tendency caused him to abandon a military life. He took holy orders, and became Archbishop of Spoleto in 1827, Bishop of Imola in 1832. and cardinal in 1840. He was elevated to the Papal chair on .June 16, 1846, two weeks after the death of Greg- ory XVI. Pius IX. took hold of the reins of government in the pontifical dominions, imbued with a sense of the evils, political, economic, and social, under which his semi-mediaeval realm had been laboring, and with a patriotic desire to raise Italy from her political degradation. He entered at once on a course of reforms, resolving to extirpate all abuses of administration in his State, to secularize the local administration, and to extend the rights of self-government. His first steps were to dismiss his Swiss guards and to grant a general amnesty. The latter measure unfortunately had the effect of bringing together a body of men whom exile had imbittered against the existing state of things. The Pope extended his innovations to every department of the ad- ministration, not sparing the ecclesiastical insti- tutions and the clergy. At the same time he ex- erted himself strenuously to improve the economic condition of his people, and to promote their in- tellectual progress. His subjects were permitted to make their voice heard in public assemblies and in the press. His policy awakened enthu- siasm among the friends of progress throughout Europe, Protestants and Jews, as well as Roman Catholics. Pius IX. was inspired n ith the dream of a free Italy, and sought to realize the ideal set foi-th by Gioberti of a federated Italy under the moral primacy of the Pope. But the pro- gramme which he embraced was far from satis- fying the demands of the revolutionary party represented by Mazzini and his followers, and Austria was readv to combat with force of arms