Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 15.djvu/824

PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES. of particles, that these dialects are sometimes spoken of as ‘Particular’ languages. Reduplication is very common in the formative processes of both noun and verb. There is no distinction of gender, nor is there, generally speaking, any inflection to denote person, number, or case in verbs or nouns. Only in certain pronouns is there found a species of inflection to indicate case. Verbs are practically always derivative, the particles employed being of two kinds: (1) special verbal particles, which give the root a simple verbal meaning or the signification of causative, intensive, etc., each particle generally having two slightly different forms, one used with active and the other with passive verbs; (2) the common or essential passive particles, which are an essential part of practically all passive forms. The combination of root and verbal particle is often modified to indicate differences in mood and tense.

The most salient syntactical characteristics of these languages are: (1) the use of certain particles, so-called ligatures, to connect two or more words which stand to each other in the relation of modifier and modified; such as adjective and noun, noun or pronoun and appositive, adjective or verb and adverb; (2) the prevailing use of a passive construction, the verb standing in the active only when the object of the action is something indefinite or when tlie agent is specially emphasized; (3) a paucity of simple prepositions, one or two being used to express the greatest variety of relations.

The following is a brief grammatical sketch of Tagalog, the most important of the Philippine languages:

The articles are simply definite, personal, and inclusive (used with names of persons), as ang táwo, ‘the man,’ si Pedro, ‘Peter,’ siná Pedro, ‘Peter and his companions.’ They have three case forms, nominative, genitive, and oblique. The plural of nouns is expressed by preceding mang&#x0303;á, e.g. mang&#x0303;á táwo, ‘men;’ case, by the case forms of the article or pronominal adjectives.

Adjectives are usually made by prefixing ma to a root, as ma-búti, ‘good;’ plural mabubúti or mang&#x0303;á mabúti.

The pronouns have usually three case forms. Among them are to be noted tayó, ‘we (including you),’ kamí, ‘we (not you),’ kitá, ‘we two.’

The ideas of ‘being’ and ‘having’ are expressed by independent particles.

Verbs are divided into seventeen classes according to the special verbal particles. Four stems are distinguished, imperative-infinitive, future, preterite, and present. One class has no special particle in the passive, the active particle being um; in the others the special particle has generally initial p in the passive, which becomes m in the imperative-infinitive and future active, and n in the preterite and present active, as pag, mag, nag, etc. The present and futire are characterized by reduplication. The common passive particles are in, i, an.

Practically the only simple prepositions are sa and, with names of persons, kay and kaná, ‘to,’ ‘for,’ ‘from,’ ‘in,’ etc. Adverbs and conjunctions are numerous and important.

The ligatures are, -ng after a vowel or n, na after other consonants, as ang malakás na táwo, ‘the strong man,’ lubhá-ng mabúti, ‘very’ good. The construction of verbs is very similar to that of nouns. When the subject precedes, it is

connected with its verb by the particle ay, ‘to be.’ The direct object of the active and the agent of the passive stand in the genitive, other nominal adjuncts in the oblique case. Any verbal form may take the article ang. The character of the subject determines the verbal form to be used in a sentence. In general, if the subject is the agent of an action, the verb stands in the active, otherwise in the passive. The in-passive is used in general when the subject is the object of an action, the i-passive when it is the object of an action away from the agent, or the cause of an action, the an-passive when it is the place of an action.

The Philippine languages possess little literature. The old native manuscripts inscribed on leaves or strips of cane have been lost. At the present day the scanty native literature may be grouped under three heads: (1) religious writings; (2) native poetry; (3) native newspapers and newspaper articles.

Consult: Totanes, Arte de la lengua Tagala (2d ed., Binondo, 1865); Campomanes, Lecciones de gramática Hispano-Tagala (5th ed., Manila, 1894); Noceda, Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala (2d ed., ib., 1860); Zueco, Metodo ''del Dr. Ollendorff. . . adaptado al Bisaya'' (ib., 1871); Bermejo, Arte conpendiado de la lengua Cebuana (Bisayan) (2d ed., Tambobong, 1894); Lozano, Cursos de lengua Panayana (Bisayan) (Manila, 1876); Mentrida-Aparicio, Arte de la lengua Bisaya-Hiligayna (Tambobong, 1894); Figueroa, Arte del idioma Visaya de Sámar y Leite (2d ed., Binondo, 1872); Encarnacion, Diccionario Bisaya-Español (3d ed., Manila, 1885); Naves, Gramática Hispano-Ilocana (2d ed., Tambobong, 1892); Agustín, Vocabulario Iloco-Español (2d ed., Manila, 1888); De Cuevas, Arte nueva de la lengua Ybanág (2d ed., ib., 1854); Bugarín, Diccionario Ibanag-Español (ib., 1854); Bergaño, Arte de la lengua Pampanga, (2d ed., Sampaloc, 1736); id., Vocabulario de la lengua Pampanga (2d ed., Manila, 1860); Pellicer, Arte de la lengua Pangasinana (2d ed., ib., 1862); Cosgaya, Diccionario Pangasinán-Español (ib., 1865); San Agustín-Crespo, Arte de la lengua Bicol (ib., 1879); Cowie, English-Sulu-Malay Vocabulary (London, 1893); Juanmartí, Gramática de la lengua de Maguindanao (Manila, 1892) ; id., Diccionario Moro-Maguindanao-Español (ib., 1892).  PHILIPPONS. A Russian sect, a branch of the (q.v.), who emigrated to Lithuania and East Prussia at the beginning of the eighteenth century. They take their name from their leader, Philip Pustosviät. They are described as peaceable and orderly, skilled in agriculture, thrifty, and industrious. They refuse to take oaths or perform military service, and set a high value upon suffering and death for conscience' sake. Priestly duties, such as leading in worship, baptism, and absolution, are performed by the oldest of the community. They do not observe the Lord's Supper, and have no confirmation or religious marriage ceremony. Their religious services consist in singing psalms, and reading the Gospels.  PHILIPPOP′OLIS (Bulg. Plovdiv, Turk. Filibeh). The largest city of Bulgaria next to Sofia, and formerly the capital of Eastern Rumelia. It is situated in a wide, fertile plain at the head of navigation on the Maritza