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PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. In the meantime, before the protocol of peace, Aguinaldo had organized a government (June 12, 1898), and in the provisional constitution promulgated June 23d he announced the independence of the islands as the chief object of the Revolutionary Government. On August 6th Aguinaldo appealed to the powers of the world for recognition of his forces as belligerents and of the independence of the Philippines, asserting that the Revolutionary Government was predominant in fifteen provinces. These provinces comprised the central part of Luzon and the majority of the inhabitants. During the following months the Americans held Manila and the native forces the rest of the island. The hopes of independence under American protection, which had been based upon the declared attitude of the United States toward Cuba and the friendly coöperation of Admiral Dewey and General Anderson, were rudely shaken by the proposed annexation of the islands to the United States, and relations became greatly strained in consequence of President McKinley's proclamation of December 21st that the islands were ceded to the United States and that military rule was to be extended over them as rapidly as possible. The tension proved too great to last, and on the night of February 4, 1899, hostilities broke out at Manila. The news of this battle, reported as an attack by the Filipinos on the Americans, no doubt contributed to the ratification of the peace treaty two days later.

The first intimations that the islands might be annexed called forth opposition in the United States, which was increased by the open declaration of that policy by the Government and greatly intensified by the outbreak of war between the American army and the Filipino republic. This opposition characterized the acquisition of the islands as the beginning of imperialism, as at variance with the traditional policy of the United States toward peoples struggling for independence, as being identical in its purposes with the projects of Napoleon III. in Mexico, as irreconcilable with the principles of the Declaration of Independence and the spirit of the Constitution, and as inevitably involving unknown expense and bloodshed. It was urged that our policy should have been one of conciliation and substantially identical with that pursued in Cuba, that the Filipinos were as capable of self-government as the South Americans, in whose behalf the Monroe Doctrine was first promulgated, or as the adherents of Juarez in Mexico, who were supported by the United States against Maximilian, and that a protectorate by the United States would have been acceptable to the Filipinos. On the other side, the acquisition of the islands by the United States was declared the only possible solution that would save them from anarchy or from falling into the hands of some European power, and that it was the duty of the United States to accept the burden. Others felt strongly the appeal of the great natural resources of the archipelago, almost undeveloped by Spain, and the immense strategic importance of holding them in view of the future Eastern Asiatic questions.

The discussion of the points of view and the policy of the Government were hampered by great lack of knowledge of the situation. To meet in part this difficulty. President McKinley appointed, in January, 1890, a commission, consisting of President Schurman of Cornell University, Admiral Dewey, Gen. E. S. Otis, the Hon. Charles Denby, and Prof. D. C. Worcester, to investigate conditions in the islands and to labor for the acceptance of American rule by the natives. In March, 1899, the Commission began its work. On April 5th it issued a proclamation to the people of the islands, explaining the purpose of their mission and the intentions of the American Government. The efforts of the Commission were devoted particularly to conciliating prominent Filipinos, and to building up a party favorable to American rule. To do this concurrently with the vigorous prosecution of the war was uphill work. In May they had a conference with some representatives of Aguinaldo, but it came to nothing.

The operations of the American army disorganized the republic and the national movement became embodied in the leadership of Aguinaldo. During the first nine months of the war disappointingly little headway was made by the Americans. The great majority of the engagements were within a radius of fifty miles of Manila. The military authorities exercised a rigid censorship over the press dispatches, so that it was practically impossible for the general public to know the real conditions. In the fall and winter of 1899 there was greater progress. Most of the country, from Manila to Dagupan, came under American control, and the native army was driven to the mountains. The principal events in 1900 and 1901 were in connection with the process of establishing civil government in the islands for which see above under Government. On March 23, 1901, Aguinaldo was captured, and on July 4th military government was superseded by civil government in the pacified districts. By act of Congress, approved July 1, 1902, civil government was established throughout the islands. Up to the establishment of civil rule in July, 1902, the total number of troops sent to the islands amounted to 4135 officers and 123,903 men. The cost of the war to the United States was over $170,000,000.

The numerous works on the Philippines fall naturally into two groups, those describing the condition of the islands under Spanish rule, and those dealing with the new order of things brought about by American supremacy. To the first group belong the following: Mallat, Les Philippines (Paris, 1846), perhaps the best single work; Jagor, Reisen in den Philippinen (Berlin, 1873); Sansianco, El ''progreso de Filipinas. Estudios economicos,'' ''administrativos y politicos. Parte economica'' (Madrid, 1881); Jordana y Morera, Bosquejo geográfico e historico-natural del archipiélago filipino (ib., 1885); Montero y Vidal, El archipiélago filipino y las islas Marianas, Carolinas y Palaos (ib., 1886); id., Historia general de Filipinas (Madrid, 1887-1895), perhaps the best general history; Meyer and Schadenberg, Die Philippinen (Dresden, 1890-1892); Zuñiga, Estadismo de las islas Filipinas, ed. by Retana (Madrid, 1893), which has a bibliography; Sastrón, Colonización de Filipinas (Malabón, 1897). The second group includes: Foreman, The Philippine Islands (2d ed., London, 1899), which gives an immense amount of information, and is the basis of several other works; Younghusband, The Philippines and Round About (New York, 1899), a general résumé of the history and political conditions; Lala, The Philippine Islands