Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 15.djvu/355

PAPAL STATES. stricted within the limits of the Vatican, outside of which, as a protest against the legality of the Italian occupation, he has never set foot since 1870. Roman Catholics generally, while of course not considering the temporal power as in any way essential, yet regard it as verj' ex- pedient for the proper exercise by the Pope of his high functions that he should be independent and not the subject of any temporal ruler. This is maintained not only on theoretical grounds, but as demonstrated historically by the events of the Avignon captivity and by more than one incident of the period since 1870. Consult: -Manning. The Temporal Power of the Pope (London, 1871 ) ; Hageliiken, Die weltliche Macht ties Papstes (Vrankiori, 1868); DiJllinger, Papstthum und Kirchenxtaat (Munich. 1861); Hergenriither, Der Kirchenstaat seit der [ran- zosischeyi Revolution (Freiburg, 1860); Still- man, The Union of Italy (Cambridge, 1898). See Papacy; Italy; Papal Guarantees, Law OF.

PAPAV'EBA'CE.a: (XeoLat. nom. pi., from Lat. papnver, poppy), The Poppy Family. A natural order of dicotyledonous plants, mostly herbs or half shrubs, and usually with a milky or colored juice. The leaves are alternate, with- out .stipules; the flowers solitary on long stalks; the fruit pod-shaped or capsular; the seeds numerous. In several the fruit is a capsule opening by small pores just under the expansion formed by the stigmas. In this way the seeds are well protected and only escape when shaken by the wind or other agencies. The order is distinguished for narcotic properties. Opium (q.v. ) is its most important product. The juice of celandine (q.v. ) is very acrid. A number of species are used in their native countries for medicinal purposes. The seeds yield fixed oil, which, with the exception of that obtained from Argemone Mexicana, is bland. The flowers of many species are large and showy, most fre- quently white or yellow, sometimes red. Several kinds of poppy and Eschscholtzia are frequent in gardens. There are in all about 200 species, natives of tropical and temperate climates. The chief genera are Hypecoum, Eschscholzia, C'heli- doniuni. filaucium. Papaver, Dicentra, Corydalis, and Fumaria. See Poppy.

PAP AW (from Sp., Port, papaya, from !Malabar papaiamaram, the native name), Asi- mina triloba. A small American tree or shrub of the natural order Anonacese, with alternate entire leaves and lateral or axillary nodding flowers. The fruits are variable in size, ranging from two to six inches in length and from one to two inches in diameter; flesh soft, sweet, and butterj-; rind thin and adherent: seeds large, kidney-shaped, and numerous. While the papaw abounds in clearings and pastures from Penn- sylvania southward, it is seldom met with in cultivation outside of parks and ornamental grounds. The fniits are found in season in sev- eral American markets, where they meet with ready sale. The tropical papaw, or melon tree, is a species of Carica.

PAPEITI, pjl'pi'e'te'. The capital of the French possessions in the eastern Pacific. See Tahiti.

PAPER (OF.. Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus, from Gk. irdnvpoi, papyros, papyrus ). Although the word "paper' is derived from 'papyrus' I'q.v.), papyrus is not a paper at all. and the beginnings of the paper industry are not traced back to it, but to the genuine paper made by the Chi- nese from very early times. From the Chine:"' it spread to other races, and was probably brought into Europe during the twelfth cen- tury through the Moors into Spain, and at the time of the Second Crusade into Italy. About the year 11.50 a paper mill was started at Fabriano, Italy, which became the principal centre for paper-making, and this region con- tinues the manufacture to the present day. From Italy the art spread to France and Germany, soniewliat later to Englaml. wlicre it was not well established until the Revocation of the Edict of Xantes in 1685 sent many French paper-ma- kers into exile to England and America. In 1690 the first paper mill in America was built by William Rittenhouse at Roxborough. near Philadelphia. The first paper mill in Xew Eng- land was built by a company to which was granted by the Governor and Legislature in 1728 the sole privilege of making paper in the Prov- ince of Massachusetts for ten years. In 17-30 the manufacture of paper was begun by this com- pany, and specimens of paper were shown to the Legislature.

Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century, while machinery was used to reduce the rags to a pulp, the formation of the sheet of paper was done entirely by hand, sheet by sheet, as described below. About 1798 Louis Robert, a workman in the mill of • Didot at Essonne, France, patented an invention for making paper in an endless web. but it was not put to practical use till developed in England by Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier, who spent and lost a fortune perfecting the machine. They are properly con- sidered the founders of modern paper-making, and their machine is universally known as the Fourdrinier machine. So well was their develop-