Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 14.djvu/314

* NATIONAL EDUCATION. 272 NATIONAL EDUCATION. life, while the local eertilicales expire alter a few years. The qualifications required of teachers in both elenientarj' ami secondary schools are being made coutiiuuilly higher, and this is true not only in regard to scholarship, but also to professional training. Three State normal schools were estab- lished in Massachusetts under the inllueuce of Horace Mann in 1839-40. Since then these in- stitutions have spread all over the I'nion. lu addition, teachers' institutes and university sum- mer schools and extension courses furnish profes- sional training, wliile the leading colleges and univer-iities have departments of education. In general, the tcndencj' is for a continually greater proportion of elementary teachers to have at least a normal school training, and for high school teachers to bo college gradvuites, who have done special work in the educational departments. In- deed, movements are on foot in several States, as California, to abolish the system of certifica- tion or examination altogether, and to grant certificates only to those who are graduates of normal schools or of colleges having professional courses. The ideal course of study in the modern pri- marj' school in the Lnited States, as outlined by the "Committee of Fifteen' in 181)4, includes reading, writing, spelling, composition, arith- metic, geography, simple lessons in natural science and general history, vocal music, drawing. with physical culture, and manual training. In many schools such a ])rogramnu' exists, and in most an effort is made to approximate it. The greatest dilhculty arises in the ungraded country schools, where a single teacher is called upon to teach children from five to eighteen years of age, and representing, of course, all or most of the grades of the elementary school. I he ideal granunar school course, as outlined by the same committee, in addition to the subjects of the primary grades, consists of Knglish grammar, algebra, and lnited States history in the last two years, ami either Latin. Krcncli. or German in the last year. Only in a few cases, however, are the foreign languages actiiall.v to be found in the grammar grades of the elementary school. The course of study in the high schools is iisually arranged with a view to presenting to the pupil from one to four difrereni gioups of sul)jects. any one of which he is at liberty to choose. The first of these groups constitutes the old classical course, but includes, besides (Jreek and Latin, modern languages or luiglish, or both, algebra, geometry, and some history and natural science. What is commonly called the liti'rary course drops the Greek and substitutes therefor more Knglish, modern languages, or history. The scientific cour.se drops Greek and sometimes Latin, laying stress on the sciences and ma- thematics instead. In some cases the classical languages are abandoned for the sake of Knglish, history, civics, pnlilical economy, etc. Another course, which emphasizes pri'paration for busi- ness, and givi's insi ruction in bookkeeping, stenogra])hy, typewriting, commercial arithmetic, and law and business methods, is frequently found. The tendency is. however, to hand over such a course to a commercial high school or business college. It is a favorite line of work for evening high schools. Practically, all courses enibrnce algebra, geometry, civics, Knglish, Ignited States history, and physics. The .sciences taught in (lie scientific course include chemistry and often botany and zoology. Courses in solid geometry, liiglicr algebra, and trigonometry are often offered in high schools. Besides the ordinary and the commercial high schools, there have growii up niunerous schools of the high school grade, otlering instruction in mechanical and industrial lines, and extensive practice in manual training. They represent a demand that existed at the time of the establish- ment of the high schools, and is to-day extensive and growing. It is that secondary education should be an innnediate pre])aration for life instead of merely for college. The "accrediting* system, which prevails in Michigan and Califor- nia, and by which high schools desiring to pass students without examination into the colleges are inspected by the faculties of the State uni- versities, has been criticised for tending to reduce the high schools to mere "feeders' for the univer- sities. On the other hand, it must be said that the colleges have very extensively modified and enlarged the curriculum of the old days of purely classical instruction, so that each of the courses ofTered in high schools, except perhaps the com- men-ial one, prepares for some line of collegiate work. ^Moreover, the 'accrediting' system has been the only system of effective inspection to which the high schools have been subjected, if we do iu>t regard the college entrance examinations as attaining this end. The method of judging school work by the examination of pupils is, however, sometimes used even in elementary schools, where examinations for promotion or graduation are given by county authorities for all the schools of the county. No elTective system of pensioning teachers exists in the United States, although some laws have been passed aiming at this. They have relied on the contributions of teachers, who may join in or not as they choose, and consequentl.v they liave never amounted to anything of im- portance. On the other hand, the salaries of teaclurs in the elementary schools compare favor- ably with those abroad, averaging .$.18..')!) a month for nu>n and .$50.;i2 for women in the West, where they are highest, and .$35.09 per month for men and $31.43 for woiiicu in the South, where they are lowest. Thirty of the States have compul.sory education laws. The common period during which some instriu-tion must Ix" given is from the eighth to the fourt<'en(li year. These laws, though not rigidly enforced, are nevertheless fairly efrective. and attendaiu'e for at least part of the year is nearly universal for children of school age. The evolution and present status of higher education in the I'nited States, the most notable features of which have been the develnpment of the State universities and the transformation of the colleges into universities, are dealt with in the article on I'.mvkbsity. For a treatment of the .American elementary schools, see the article on CoMMo.N Schools. Hiiu.iooK.M'iiv. (i. Schmid. flr.ichichtc der Er- zirhinifi (Herlin. 1002); Harris. '"Klementary Education," in Hutler. luhirntinn in Ihr TInilfd fHiitts (Albany, IflOO) : Compayn', L'riiffifjne- mrnt xrcondaire nux Ftatn-Vtii.i (Paris. 1800); Rrporl of the Vnitrd fitntrs liiirmu nf Educn- linn: l^tnlrsman's Yrnr-Iionk : Blackinar. Flintnrii of Frdrral and Statr Aid to Tliqhrr Ediirntion in the United States (Washington. 1890) ; Barnard,