Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 14.djvu/308

* NATIONAL EDUCATION. 266 NATIONAL EDUCATION. adiiiiUfd gratuilouslv. The authoritifs made great and successful efforts to gain a large at- tendance, and teachers were paid better salaries than el.-.euhere in Kurope. In 1811 M. Cuvier found 4511 primary schools in existence, and one in each ten of the population in school. Up to lS4ij only two important stops had been taken in the further development of the system. Normal schools were established in ISIU, and the free schools for the poor were supplemented by institutions of a somewhat higher {Trade where a small tuition fee was re(piired. Since the free schools could be entered only by those who pos- sessed a certificate of poverty, the children of people with moderate means were exchuled from them. The private schools for such children were fast beoominjz inferior to the free scliools which •were under public patronage, and it was to sup- ply this want that the towns established iiiter- nu'diate schools (ttlsxthcii srhoolcii) . In addition, French schools, which emphasized modern lan- guages and eomniercial branches, and Latin scliools, preparing for the universities, were founded. These higher schools, however, did not compare so favoraldy «ith those of other coim- tries as did the primary ones. The Constitution of 1S4S established liberty of instruction. This conflicted with the iirovision of the law of ISOO that the authorizations of the nuinicipal council and of the insiicctor were necessary fur even the teacher in a private school. In 1857 this reijuirement was removed, only the general admission certificate being demanded in such cases. The Constitution of 1S4S. also, by placing all religious denominations on a footing of eiiiuility, gave to the Catholics and liberals a chance to attack the religious instruction in the schools, which according to the law of ISOG was to have been Christian but undenominational. Their agitation led to a strict eiiforccmcnt of the law. which in turn roused the antagonism of the orthodox Protestants. The result of a bitter contest was the law of 1857, which realTirmed that of ISO!!, making more explicit its provision that religious instruction, while undenomination- al, should yet inculcate Christian virtues. It was also provided that the schoolrooms should at special hours be put at the disposal of religious comiiiuuions for |)urposes of instruction. This attitude has bei-n confirmed by the law of 1S7S. The law of 1857 also made definite regulations reganling the niimbej- anil su]iport of schools, the salary and nunilier of teachers, school fees, the primary curriculum, the si lection of teachers and school inspectors. Each commune was required to maintain at its own charge what in the opinion of the State's deputies and the supreme Govern- ment was a sutrieient number of primary schools. If this task was too heavy, the Stale and the province were to share equally in a grant of aid. it was provided that pupil teachers should aid in the work of instruction. School fees were to be exacted only of lliose who could afford to pay lliem. The subjects of primary instruction were defined to lie rending, writing, arithmetic, the elements of geometry, of Dutch grammar, of geography, of history, of the natural sciences, and singing. The public schoolniasler was to he selected Viy the communal coiiniil from n list of Ihiwe wlio had Hcquilted themsclvis best in n competitive examination. , salaried provincial inspector was substituted for the provincial com- mission of district inspectors. The Jlinister of the Home Department, assi-ted by a referen- dary, was made the supreme authority in matters connected with education. In 1803 a law was passed organizing secondary instruction as consisting of liurglier, higher burgher, agricultural, polytechnical. and indus- trial schools. Tliis law was amended in lS7ii and 18711. The secondary schools are laider special commissions and inspectors, and teachers in them are required to have special diplomas, and, except in a few cases, to be university graduates. The law of 1857 has been twice amended, in 1878 and ISSi). In 1878 the .school authorities were cmjiowcred to increase the curriculum as laid down in 1857, by French, German, English, general history, mathematics, drawing, agricul- ture, and gymnastics whenever they deemed it expedient. It was also provided that each com- mune should su|)port the necessary number of unsectariau .schools; but 30 per cent, of its edu- cational exiicnditures were to be contributed by the State, which also undertook to subsidize pri- vate schools under certain condit ions. An enor- mous increase in the State contribution to popu- lar education was thus brought about. In 1889 the method of granting the State subsidy was modified. If the school ap])lying for one is found on inspection to conform to the State regulations it will be granted an amount dependent on the attendance, the number of teachers, and extent of the curriculum. All schools having more than forty-one jnipils must have at least two teachers, and an additional teaclier is reijuired for an aver- age addition of aliout fifty jiupils. When schools have more than the minimum requirement of teachers, and when they cover more than the re- quired curriculum, additiimal grants are given. The State also furnishes 25 per cent, of the amount necessary to establish a school, and regulates the character and hygienic conditions of the buildings and jiremises. The law of 1878 iii-tituti'd a system of pensions for teachers who had reached the age of sixty-five. The annual amount is one-sixtieth of the annual salary for each year of service. The teachers contribute 2 per cent, of their yearly salaries to a pension fund. The Dutch classify their g,^nnasia together with their universities under the head of superior instruction. Such instruction is organized into a system by the law of 187fi. The three State uni- versities are supported and controlled by the na- tional Government. See VxivicnsiTY. rRfssi.. The school system of Prussia may be divided into three departments, elementary, secondary, and higher. The elementary system is designed to educate children of the lower classes whose school training is comideted with theni. The secondary schools are intended to prepare pupils for the universities or professional schools, which are for the most part classed as superior schools. The elementary .schools may be grouped under five classes: (1) The infant nchooln. These are not siniported by State funds, nor are the teachers required to have State certificates of capacity. They are, however, under the super- vision of local school boards. Their purpose is to care for children whose parents are obliged to go out to work. Children are admitted ordinarily only in their third year, but in some cases even younger children are cared for. (2) The Yolks'