Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 14.djvu/304

* NATIONAL EDUCATION. 262 NATIONAL EDUCATION. There are tlireo grades of certilicates, elementaiy, superior, and professional. I'or the last, stress is laid on knowledge of professional matters, and two years' teaching experience is required. The examination includes a test in actual teaching before inspectors. Only such as pass it can become principals. The elementary' teachers are appointed at tirst on probation by tlie academy in-*i)ectors, and if successful are, on his recom- iiH'udatioii, appointed by the departmental jire- fects. The entire l)ody of educational otUcials i.s therefore practically in the- hands of the Presi- dent, the Minister of Public Instruction, and the academic inspector. The Superior Council deals with pro-irammes for instruction, regulations for discipline, teach- ing, and school management generally, and hears appeals from the lower councils regarding schools that have been suppressed or have not been sanc- tioned by the lower authorities. It is the high court of appeal in all contentions. The academic council oversees courses of instruction in either higher or secondary schools, judges cases involv- ing discipline of teachers or pupils therein, or the establishment or suppression of secondary schools. The departmental council has similar functions regarding the primary schools and determines their estalilishment, location, and the number of teachers. It also inspects them. By the laws of 1800 and lS!Mi universities have been organized in each academy. Preparatory to them are State lyci^es. or classical schools, of which there were in 1000 for V)oys 100. and for girls 40; communal colleges for boys, of which there were 220; and colleges for girls, numbering at that date 28. All these institutions take both boarders and day pupils. Besides these, there are a number of secondary courses for girls. The primary schools may be grouped imder five heads: (1) The mnlrrnnl schools, which receive children between two and six years of age. From being schools for taking care of children whose mothers were out at service, they have become part of the educational scheme. They are sup- jilemented by infant classes, which prepare the children for the elementary schools, and take the place of the maternal schools in small conmuini- tics. To them are admitted children from four to seven years of age. (2) The rlimmton/ pri- morii xrhools ifcolm jirimairi's ('U'tntnlnirm) . These take children from six to thirteen, the work Ix'ing divided into three grades of two years each. (.3) The superior priiinirii srlinols {i'cotcs primaires supfririircs) . The place of these may bo taken by the 'complementary courses.' The latter arc partly review courses, partly advanced with special attention to train- ing for practical life. In them instruction lasts two years. There are two classes of superior primary schools, the professional and the non- professional. The first class includes commercial, technical, and imlustrial schools. The second has an advanced, liberal course for three years, supplementing it by considerable te<'hnical and industrial work during the rest of the time. It takes pupils from twelve to eighteen. It was originallv designed tn prepare for the secondary schools, but having a somewhat similar course, and l>ein'.' less aristocratic, it failed. Tt was revived with the addition of the vocntinnal train- ing in 18S0. (4) The npprrtilirr srhonls. which are sometimes classified as superior primary schools. Their name indicates their function. actual shop work being the centre of the cur- riculum. (5) The priiiiari/ normal schools. Be- sides these, there are two higher normal schools, which prepare teachers for the primary normal schools and the superior primary schools. There are eighty-seven primary normal schools for men and eighty-five for women. They give a three years' course. The primary school system is further supplemented by courses for adults oller- ing either elementary, technical, or commercial instruction, or lectures on subjects of general ciil- ture. In the primary schools tuition is free. More- over, by the law of 18(J7, a fund to help pupils whose parents cannot supply them with clothes, books, etc., was created. Its establisliment in each commune was decreed in 1882, the State agreeing to contribute. It is distriliuted by local couunitlees, and in many cases chihlreu at school are even provided with dinners. In the superior primary schools, bursaries exist to support de- serving pupils taking the courses. At the age of sixteen the holders of bursaries may be trans- ferred to secondary schools with a continuation of their stipends. Bursaries also exist in the secondarj' schools, awarded on examination to students of limited means. Students are ad- milted to the normal schools on competitive ex- amination. They are supported while there, and, when they graduate, are pleilged to teach ten years. They receive positions in the order of merit. Secomlary and higher schools charge tui- tion, but, as they are largely provided for by the State, the amount of this is small. The salaries of all administrators of schools, inspectors, and, except in the case of the communal colleges and in cities having over 150,000 inliabi- tants, teachers as well, are paid by the State. This brings about general uniformity. The sal- aries of primary teachers range from $200 to if.')(i0 a year; of nornial school teachers from $500 to .$1100; of professors in the lycecs from $(U0 to .$1800; of professors in the universities from $2400 to $:!000. In primary schools of all kinds, the teachers are divided, according to length of service and efficiency, into five grades, and in lycC'es into four. Salaries are based on this rank- ing. The teachers may, when they have served thirty years, and have reached the age of sixty, receive a y)ension which ammints to one-sixtieth of the average salary during the last six years multiplied by the number of years served. To make up for this, they contribute to ,a pension fuid 5 [)er cent, of their yearly salaries plus one- twelfth of their first year's salary and one- twelfth of each increase in salary for the first year of such increase. In addition to paying salaries and pensions, the State supports the nornuil schools, the buildings for which are erected and eiiuipjied by the departments. The departments also furnish the supplies for them, and pay the office expenses incurred in running the departmental bureaus and the academic bu- reau of inspection. The communes pay for the supplies of the primary schools and local school f)niiials. for janitors, and for the builiiins and equipping of schools and residences for Tnasters. Tn the building of iirimary schools, however, a State loan is available, tlie amount of which de- pends on the necessities of the commune, and varies from 15 to SO per cent, of the total cost of (he work. The State also loans money to build normal schools. The universities, since their or-