Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 13.djvu/746

* MOHAMMEDANISM. 668 MOHAMMEDAN SECTS. about iJ.jO.OOO -Moliamincdaus iu llie Sulu group of the Philippine Islands. BiBUOuHAruv. The works mentioned in the articles Koit.N and iloJlAMMKl) are all iin|iorlant for the general subject of islam. Of other works the following is a select, but by no means com- plete, list: tieiger, ^as hat Mohariimcd aus dein Judtnthum aufgenommen? (Bonn, 1833; Kng. trans., London, 1899) ; Lane, The Manners and Customs of the Modern JiV/ypfi««.s.( London, 183G; many subsequent editions), the best popular ac- count of Jlohammedan life and customs; Dozy, Het Islamisme (Leyden, 1803; French trans., Essai siir Vhistoire cle I'Jf^Iamisme. Paris, 1879) ; Kremer, Gesehichte der hcrrsehendi n Ideen dcs Islam (Leipzig, 1868) : id., Kulturiicschichte dcs Orients unter den Vhalifcn (Vienna, 1875-77); Ahmed Khan liahador. .1 Series of Essays on the Life of Mahomet and Siihjeets iiuhsidiary Thereto (London, 1870) ; Hunter, Our Indian Mussul- mans (ib., 1871); Deutscli, Essay on IsJam (ib., 1874) ; Vamb^ry. Der Islam im lOten jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1875) : Hauri, Der Islam in seinem Einfluss auf das Lchen seiner Belenner (Leyden, 1881) ; Pischon, Der Einfluss des Islam auf das hiiusliche, sociale und politischc Leben seiner Bekcnner (Leipzig, 1881); Blunt, The Future of Islam (London, 1880); Poole, Studies in a Mosque (ib., 1883) ; Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam (ib., 1885; incomplete and not always trustworthy) ; August Miiller, Der Islam im Moryen- und Ahcnd- lande (Berlin, 1885-87); Snouck-Hurgronje, "De Islam," in De (lids (1886, No. 5); Le Chatelier. I/lslamismc au I'Je siccle (Paris, 18891 : Goldziher. Mohammcdanische Sludien (i., Halle, 1889: ii.. 1890) : Ameer AH. The Life and Teaehinys of Mohammed (London, 1891). a defense of Islam bv an intelli<.'ent and educated Moslem; T. V. Arnold, The i'reachinq of Islam (Westminster, 189C) ; De Castries, L'Islam (Paris. 1897) ; Janscn, Vcrhreitung des Islam (Friedriclisbagen, 1897); Saehau, Sluhammeda- nisches Uccht nach sehafiitisehcr Lchre (Stutt- gart, 1897): Carra de Vaux. I.c Mahomctisme (Paris, 1898) ; Atterbury, Islam in Africa (New York, 1899) ; Le Chatelier, I/lslamisme dans I'AfriqUC oceidrntale (Paris, 1899); Forget, L'Islam et Ic Christianisme dans VAfriquc cen- trale (ib., 1900); Sell, Ess/iys on Mohamme- danism (London, 1901); Macdonald, Derclop- ment of Muslim Theoloyy. Juris-i>rudcnce. and Constitutional Theory (New York. 1903). See Koran ; Mohammed"; Siiiites; Sun.na; 3lo- jiAMJ[EUAN Sects; Mecca; Medi.n'a. MOHAMMEDAN SECTS. The movement ■wbicli liil t'l (hi' ■lii~iiiii cif Ulam into opposing parties was at lirst a pulitiial one. though reli- gious, theological, ami pbilnsopbical questions soon arose which addcil to llii' I'uniplexity of the situa'^ion and caused a further subdivision into sects. Mohanuned died without naming bis suc- cessor; anil while .bu Bi'kr was looked ipon liy many as the natural leader, others felt that Ali, who was not only the cousin and son-in- law., but also a decided favorite of the Prophet, should be his successor. Among the .Arabs, how- ever, leadership was not a matter of inheritance, but of election: and when .Abu Hekr was chosen Caliph, he received the recognition of all. includ- ing Ali. Omar's election likewise resulted in general satisfaction, although the Onimiads, who. even when they had accepted Islam, were still rivals of the Prophet's family, began to show their opposition to those who had been the Prophet's intimate companions. On Omar's death the caliphate was again denied to Ali, Othman being chosen. Othman's misrule, how- ever, caused great di.ssatisfaetion. and when he was assassinated Ali finally came to the caliphate. The hostility of the Ommiads. however, con- tinued, and soon turned into open revidt, with iloawiyah, the Ommiad Governor of Syria, at its head. The question as to the right of suc- cession, which was soon to cause the permanent separation of the whole Jlohammedaii world into Shiites and Sunnites, had even then presented itself in great seriousness, the followers of .Ali claiming that only the Prophet's family had the right to the caliphate, the Ommiads opposing this claim. There was also a third party, afterwards known as the Kiiari.tites ("those who go forth'), who lield the old Arab view on the question of succession, and were thus directly ojiposed. in principle, to the "legitimists.' They were, in reality, theocrats; and they claimed that any man might be cilled to the imfniiah, or lead- ership, even if he did not belong to the Koreish, or was not even a freeman, provided only that he was just and pious and tit in every otlier re- spect. As a result of this they also claimed that an unrighteous imam might be deposed, or even put to death ; and furthermore, that there was no absolute need for any imam at all. Since Ali, however, united in his person the claims of heredity and of election, they were at first among his jjartisans. But when at the battle of Sillin Ali submitted to arbitra- tion the dccisicm of his right to the caliphate as again.st Jloawiyah. they refused to stand by the decision and swear allegiance to either one or the other. Twelve thousand of them conse- quently deserted Ali's camp in a body; they ]iroclaimed "no rule but that of .Allah alone."' The Kh:rijites. though often defeated in this and succeeding caliphates, appeared again and again as the assailants of the estaldi'shed government. After Ali's death, when Moawiyah had finally succeeded in establishing himself in control, he induced Hasan, the elder son of Ali. to yield up his prerogatives. Ali's followers, however, refused to recognize Moawiyah and espoused the cause of Ilosein, Ali's second son. A bloody struggle followed, in which Ilosein lost his life. The division of the Mohauunedaus into Sunnites and Shiites was now fixed, and the Shiilcs. con- sistently developing the theory of legitimism, re- fused to recognize that then' had ever liccn any legitimate caliph between Mohummed and Ali. See SiiiiTE.s; SrxMTES. Despite the fact that with Ali's death and the Ommiad supremacy the questimi as to the caliphate was .settled, the Shiites .still looked to the descendants of Ali as their religious leaders, or imams. Bvit even among the Shiites thein- .selves unanimity in regard to the imamah ilid not long prevail, and discussions of a theological nature likewise proved a source of trouble. The impulse to such discussions came from Persia, into which Mohammedanism had well penetrated, anil which, since the principle of hereditary stiecession had always obtained there, naturally espoused the cause of .Ali.