Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 11.djvu/902

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. to the celestial equator and its poles, and to the point on the ecliptic called the (q.v.), that terrestrial latitude and longitude have to the equator and a first meridian. The corresponding coördinates of a heavenly body relatively to the celestial equator are called its (q.v.) and  (q.v.).  LATITUDE, For many years it has been suspected that terrestrial latitudes might be subject to small changes, and that these might possibly affect the results of ordinary astronomical observations. But in spite of all efforts to detect with certainty the existence of such changes, it was not until the year 1888 that Küstner proved beyond a doubt that latitudes vary by observable amounts. His observations were made in Berlin, and he found that the latitude of that place was less by two-tenths of a second of arc in the spring of 1885 than it had been in the spring of 1884. His result has been abundantly confirmed by subsequent observers.

If we imagine two straight lines drawn from the centre of the earth, one to the pole, and the other to a given observatory, then the angle between these two lines is called the co-latitude of the observatory. The latitude, in the ordinary geographical or astronomical sense, is obtained simply by subtracting this co-latitude from 90°. It is evident that the co-latitude (and therefore also the latitude) will remain constant for any given observatory if the pole maintains an immovable position on the earth. Now, if we disregard, as we may, moderate irregularities in the earth's surface, we can take its figure to be a slightly flattened globe or sphere. The shortest possible line through the centre, and limited by the surface at each end, may be called the axis of figure of the earth. The points where this axis meets the surface are the poles of figure. But the earth has still another axis. viz. the axis of rotation. About this axis the planet revolves once in twenty-four hours, giving rise to all the diurnal phenomena of astronomy. Constancy of latitude would imply the relative fixity of these two axes. That each shall maintain continuously exactly the same position with respect to the other is the one necessary and sufficient condition for perfectly invariable terrestrial latitudes. If the axis of figure be subject to a slow revolution about the axis of rotation, there will be a corresponding variation of astronomically determined latitudes. The maximum amount of the variation will be the same as the small angle between the two axes, and its period will be equal to the time required for the rotation of the one axis about the other. At the end of every such period, the latitudes of all places on the earth should return to their original values.

Up to the publication of the work of Küstner, in 1888, fundamental astronomy had adopted invariability of latitude as a fact practically established. All the results of astronomical observations made prior to that date must therefore be subject to so much error as might be produced by assuming a constancy of latitudes in the discussion of the observations. Now, the aberration constant (see ) is particularly liable to error from this source. It is evident, therefore, that a redetermination of this quantity was imperatively needed, and that the necessary observations must be arranged in such a manner as to take account of the effect of latitude variation. Careful study of the problem brought out the fact that the two quantities involved are entangled in such a way that no available method of research could prove satisfactory, unless it had for its object the simultaneous determination of both aberration and variation of latitude. It seemed best to employ what is known as the 'zenith-telescope method,' and the best modification of this was suggested by Küstner himself. The observations, when made, must be continued more or less through the entire night and must be made on every clear night for a period of fourteen months, if it be desired to determine the aberration. For the latitude variation, the observations must of course be continued for a term of years—indeed, they must be kept up as long as we wish to trace the polar motion. It will be seen that the problem is one of great difficulty, testing to the utmost the patience and endurance of the astronomer. Moreover, as in the case of the solar parallax, the precision can be enhanced by making a simultaneous series of observations at more than one observatory. If the participating observatories are situated upon the same parallel of latitude, or very near it, the results obtained will enjoy a further increase of precision. This was first suggested by Fergola of Naples. The advantage consists in the possibility of observing just the same stars at all the observing stations, so that the differences of latitude of the stations are determined independently of any knowledge of the exact positions of the stars on the sky. This is most important, for the positions of the stars are never known with absolute precision, being themselves but the results of fallible human observation. Moreover, the polar motion can be deduced from the latitude differences of the observatories just as well as from the actual latitudes. If, for instance, the pole happens to be moving at a given time toward an American observatory, it will be moving away from observatories in Japan or the Philippine Islands. So that, if we can but measure, from time to time, the latitude differences of observatories properly situated, we can get an accurate and complete idea of the actual motions of the pole. The International Geodetic Association, which includes all the civilized nations, has now undertaken the systematic observation of latitude variation. Four stations have been established upon the same parallel of latitude. Two are in the United States, one in Japan, and one in Sicily. Two private observatories participate voluntarily. Systematic observations were begun about the end of 1899.

The accepted constant of aberration must also be regarded as subject to slight correction, so long as the latitude problem remains unsettled, especially as the most recent aberration results exhibit rather large discordances among themselves. Consult Chandler's articles in the Astronomical Journal (Cambridge. Mass.), and Albrecht's articles published in the reports of the International Geodetic Association, and also, in abridged form, in the Astronomische Nachrichten (Kiel, Germany). See.  LAT′ITU′DINA′RIANS. The name sometimes applied to a school of English writers in the seventeenth century who sought to reconcile the Church of England and the Puritan element upon the basis of subordinating differences in doctrine to the broad essentials of religion. See. 