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* ITALY. 52 ITALY. «f Southern Italy, kept for centuries under a burcteiisonie despotisin, sliowed themselves, on the whole, delieient ill training for self-govern- ment, wiiieh eonies more naturally to the Tus- cans, Lombards, Piednumtese. and Venetians. After 1879 the south was most inlluential in the politics of the Kingdom, and served to give them an unstable and factional character, in which tho jMafia (q.v. ) and the Camorra (q.v. ) were not altogether without a part. Almost as a neces- sity, arising from the relations by which its in- dependence was secured, Italy endeavored to nialntJiin .a place among the great powers, and tliis entailed ex]irnditTircs for the army and navy, which became insupjiortable burdens upon the people. In 188.3 Italy entered the Triple Alli- ance (q.v.) with Germany and Austria. The gravest problem, however, that presented itself to the Italian Goverinnent was that of its rela- tions with the Vatican. Kvcr since the Papal See was shorn of its temporal power, the Pope, re- fusing to recognize the guarantees to his spiritual authority ottered by the secular Government, has insisted upon regarding himself as a prisoner in the Vatican. The Clerical Party in Italy, acting under instructions, has abstained from participa- tion in national though not from municipal poli- tics. After the death of Cavour there was a notable lack of ULnseltish and statesmanlike lead- ership, Francesco Crispi (q.v.) being almost the only one who rose above the level of a mere politician and head of a faction. This produced corruption in office and the extensive use of the Government patronage and influence to reward political friends and to promote private financial operations. Until 1870 the constitutional Right retained control for the most part, but in that year, with the accession of the Jlinistry of the Sicilian Depretis, the radical Left came into power. In 1881 an electoral reform act was passed by the Chambers, by which the suffrage was vastly extended. Between 1880 and 1890 Italy acquired considerable territory in Africa on the Red Sea littoral. Aggressions upon Abys- sinia brought about strained relations with that kingdom, which finally led to war. After the Italian army had met a crushing defeat at Adowa (March 1, 189C) much of the territory that had been snatched from Abyssinia was re- stored by the Treaty of Adis Abeba, October 26, 1896. Italy also gave up its unfounded claim to a protectorate over Abyssinia. (See Abys- sinia ; Eritre.v.) In February, 1890. an Ital- ian protectorate was established over the Somali coast, south of British Sonuililand. Victor Em- manuel died .January 9. 1878, and was succeeded by his son Humbert (Umberto) I. The bread riots of 1898, which assumed threatening dimen- sions, led to arbitrary measures of repression, and to a restriction of the freedom of the press. On .July 29. 1900, King Humbert was assas- sinated at Monza by an Italian anarchist,. gelo Bresci. The King's son, Victor Emmanuel III., succeeded to the throne. Italy took part in the military expedition of the Powers to China in 1900. Btbi,iogr.phy. General: Descriptive. Val- lardi, L'ltalia sotto Vaspetto ftsico, storico, let- terario, artistico, mUitare et statistico (Milan, 1856-86) ; Altavilla, II refrno d'ltalia (Turin, 1875) : Laveleye, L'ltnlie actucUe (Paris. 1881) ; Nissen, Itnlische Landeskunde, vol. i. (Berlin, 1883) ; Hare, Cities of Southern Italy (London, 1883); id., Cities of Central Italy (ib., 1884); id., Cities of Northern Italy (ib., 1884); Do Amicis, Travels in Italy, trans. (cw York, 1S86) ; Premoli, L'ltalia gcoyrafica illustrata (.Milan, 1891); Stratl'orello, La I'atria, gcogra- /ia dell' Italia (Turin. 1891 ct scq.) ; Corti, Lc jtrovincie d'ltalia sotio Vaspetto gcografico e storico (ib., 1891 et scq.) ; Fischer, "Die siid- curopaischen Halbinseln," in Vnscr Wissen von der Erde (Prague. 1893). Agriculture. Cantoni, L'agricollura in Italia (Milan, 1885) ; Eheberg, Agrarisvhc Zitstiinde in Ilalirn (l^ipzig, 1886) ; Beauclerk, Rural Italy (London, 1SS9) ; Gattc, Agricolltira e sucialismo (Milan. 1900) ; Ghio, "Les derni&res crises agraires en Italic," in Journal des Economisies, vol. lvii. (Paris, 1901); JIase-Dari, "La situa- zione agricola e il possibile rimedio." in La lie- forma .Sociale, vol. xii. (Turin, 1902). Got:rnmext. Garelli della Morea. II diritto omministratit^o italiano (7th cd., Turin, 1885); Sachs, L'ltalie, scs finances et son devcloppement I'conomiijue depiiis I'nnifieation du royaume (Rome, 1885) ; De ^lombmes. Constitutions curopccnnes (Paris, 1881); .Minghetti, / partiti politici (Bologna, 1881): Brusa. "It^alien." in ^Marquardsen, Ilandhuch des iiffrntlichen Itechts (Freiburg, 1886) : Bazin, The Italians of To-day, trans, by Marchant (Xew York, 1897); Morini, La deeadenza del srntimento monarehico in Italia, Cause e rimedie (Florence, 1900) ; Lowell, Oov- ernmenf and Parties in Continental Europe (Bos- ton, 1900) : and the publications of the Burea:t of Statistics, under the direction of Bodio. who has made many valuable contributions to Italian statistics. Ethnology. Castclfranco, "Paleoethnologie italienne." in Ilerue d'anlhropologie. vols, i.-iv. (Paris. 1886-89) : Pigorini. "I^ popolazioni della valle del Po." in II priniiero congresso geogra- fico, vol. i. (Geneva, 1892) ; Montclius, La civili- sation primilire en Italic depuis I'introductimi des mctaux (Stockholm. 1895) ; Zabarowski, Les races de l'ltalie (Paris. 1897) ; Sergi, The Med- iterranean Race (London, 1901). History. For the earliest period of Italian history, consult: Bury. Later Roman Em- pire (London. 1889) ; Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders (O.xford. 1880) ; for the period after Charlemagne, Grcgorovius, History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages, translated by Hamil- ton (Lonihm. 1S9.T-1900), which in spite of its name gives a good account of the struggles in the rest of Italy: for the relation of the Empire and Italy, consult: Giesebrecht, Ocschichtc der deutschcn /laiscccciV ( Brunswick, 1855-88); Mil- man, History of Latin Christianity (London, 1840). For the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, consult: Burckhardt. The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (London, 1892); STnonds, The Renaissance in Italy (7 vols., London. 1875- 86). The most thorough critical general history of Italy is Reuchlin, Oeschiciite Italicns. to 1870 (1859-73). There are numerous histories of indi- vidual States and periods. On the nineteenth century and the struggle for unity, there are many letters, biographies, and memoirs. For the general historj- of this period, see Stillman, The Unity of Italy, 1Slo-95 (Cambridge. 1898), in- cluding a bibliography: Tivaroni. Storia critica del rimrgimento (9 vols., 1891-96) ; Treitschko, Historische und politische Aufsiitze, vol. ii. (5th ed. 1886) : Thayer, Daicn of Italian Independence