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* KKAPOTKIN. 607 KRASZEWSKl, Asia had convinced him that the maps of that continent were based on an erroneous principle. After two years of work he publislieil a new hypothesis, which has since been adopted by most cartographers. In a geological expedition to Finland Krapotkin discovered that all of Korthcrn Europe was once covered by an ice- cap, an opinion then considered rank heresy. Ob.servation of the economic conditions of the Finnish peasants inspired in him a feeling that natural science avails little so long as the social prolilem remains unsolved. In 1872 he visited Western Europe, and spent some months in Switzerland, at that time the centre of the propaganda of the International Workingmen's Association. Krapotkin joined the more con- servative collectivistic wing of tiie party, but soon went over to the Bakunists, or Anarchists. Returning to Russia, he found the Nihilistic movement well under way, and joined the 'Cir- cle Tchaikovsky.' a revolutionarj' society with branches throughout Russia. For two years he was busilj' engaged in carrying on an anarchistic propaganda, devoting a part of his time, how- ever, to geographical science. In 1874 he was arrested and consigned to the fortress of Peter and Paul at Saint Petersburg, where by special favor he was permitted to elaborate the results of his explorations in Finland. After two years of imprisonment he escaped to England, and in 1877 went to Switzerland, where he again be- came actively engaged in the anarchistic move- ment. In 1879 he began to publish at Geneva Le lievolte, the organ of his party. After the assassination of Alexander II. he was expelled from Switzerland, and after a brief stay in Eng- land settled in Thonon. France, where he con- tinued to publish Le Revolie. He was arrested in 1883 for alleged complicity in anarchistic plots at Lyons, and was sentenced to five years' imiirisonment. In 1886 he was set free and went to England, where he took an active part in the socialistic movement of that year. Since that time he has lived in England, devoting him- self to writing and lecturing in defense of an- archism. He visited the United States in 1900. While a believer in revolution as a necessary means to social reform, Krapotkin has always displayed a disinclination for violent measures. His ideal is a society of small communities of equals, federated for the purpose of securing the greatest possible sum of well-being, with full and free .scope for every individual initiative. Gov- ernment and leadership have no place in his scheme of social organization. He recognizes that it is impossible for any man to conceive the method of operation of such a society, but trusts to the collective wisdom of the masses to solve the problems involved. For Krapotkin's life, consult his interesting Memoirs of a Revolutionist (Boston. 1899). His most important anarchistic works are Aux jeiincs (irns (1881); Law and Authority (Lon- don, 18S) ; Paroles d'un revolts (1885, trans- lated 1886 under title War) ; In Russian and French Prisons (1887); La conqufte du pain (1892). KRASICKI, kni-shet'sk^ ToxACY ( 17.3.5- 1801 ) . A Polish writer and bishop. He was born in Pubiccko. and studied in Lemberg and Rome. In 1767 he was appointed Bishop of Ermeland, but he lived mostly in Warsaw. After the first partition of Poland, in 1772, he enjoyed the favor of Frederick the Great. In 1778 he published his mock-heroic MOusiad (Myszeis), full of allu- sions to the State disorders and the wrangles of Polish nobility, and also his Moimchomachia. This latter work aroused a storm of criticism, an<l his witty reply, Antimonachomachia (1780), intensified public interest in the matter. Besides these books he wrote much verse and prose, and translated Ossian into Polish. In 179.5 he was made Archbishop of Gnesen. He died six years later, in Berlin. His works were published by Dmochowski, in ten volumes (Warsaw, 1803-04, latest edition 1878). Consult his Life, written by Kraszewskl (Warsaw, 1880). The ilonucho- maehin was translated into Gennan [Der Mon- chekrieg) by Winklewski (Berlin, 1870). KRASINSKI, kra-she'ny'-ske. Zygmvxt, Count (1812-59). One of Poland's greatest poets. He was born and died in Paris. He left Russia, where his father held a high military position, and devoted himself to literature, becoming a personal friend of Mickiewicz (q.v. ) and an ad- herent of romanticism. In 18.34 he published his I'ndivine Corned)/. It deals with the struggle between degenerated aristocracy (Count Henry) and the ignorant, hungry rabble ( Pancratias). The dramatic poem Irydion (Paris, 1836) was an allegory of Poland's sulferings. Like the earliest Slavophils, he believed in the regen- eration of the world through his country, of whose ultimate restoration he felt sure. His last great work. Dawn ( 1843), is a philosophical poem, wherein he embodied his view of the world. In 1845 he published his Psalms of the Future: Of Faith, Hope, and Lore. These were directed against the impending rebellion. For political reasons his name did not appear on his works during his lifetime. The best edition is in four volumes (Lemberg, 1880-88). Consult the biog- raphy by Tarnowski (Cracow, 1892), which is the best. German translations of his works are: I'lirtiittliche Komiidie. by Batornicki (Leipzig, IS-il). and Irydion (Leipzig, 1S81). KRASNOVODSK, kras'no-v6dsk'. A fortress of Asiatic Russia, in the Trans-Caspian Terri- tory, situated on Krasnovodsk Bay, on the east- ern coast of the Caspian Sea (Map: Asia. Cen- tral. El ). It is the starting-point of the Trans- Caspian Railway. Population, in 1897, 6329. KRASNOYARSK, kriis'no-yarsk'. The cap- ital of tlie Government of Yeniseisk. Siberia, sit- uated on the Yenisei and on the Trans-.Siberian Railway, about 2720 miles by rail from JIoscow (Map: Asia, J 3). It has a number of churches, a synagogue, a theological and a teachers' semi- nary, a library, a technical and a railway school, a museum, and a theatre. The chief manufac- tures are brick, leather, and soap. There is also a considerable transit trade in tea. The town was founded in 1628 as a fortified prison settlement. Population, in 1897, 27,300. KRASNOYE SELO, kriis'na-yc sft-lo'. A. well-known summer resort in the Government of Saint Petersburg. Russia, on the Ligovka River and the Saint Petersburg-Reval Railway. It has an imperial palace with a park and a nvnnber of villas, the summer residences of the Russian nobility. Poimlation, in 1897, 3286. KRASZEWSKl, kr4-sh?f'sk«, JoZEF loNACT (1812-87). A Polish novelist, historian, and