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* KNOWLEDGE. 564 KNOWLES. It is due to mistaken inference, and when the in- ference is corrected, llie illusion, the unreality, disappears. The straight stick thrust into the water appears broken. To the man who knows the laws of refraction there is no unreality in the broken appearance. The break is a rial break, but not in the tangible stick or in the stick as a material for any mechanical uses. The break is in the line of movement of the rays of light. The vieual sense bears correct witness as to the actual occurrence in the visible, i.e. the luminous char- acter of the object. The brokenness of the object as seen is part of ultimate reality, and is as absolutely and un(iualitiedly and indefeasibly real as any other reality in the real universe. There are no degrees in reality in any metaphysical sense; there are degrees in knowledge of reality; i.e. the knowledge of the connections that prevail between real things, socalle<l illusions included. It is only in a practical sense that one phenom- enon differs from another phenomenon in reality, and even in this sense with increase of knowledge there comes increase of reality. Just as the reality of a normal vision is two-fold, so the reality of an hallucination is two-fold, in normal vision the seen appearance is actually seen and also means further possil)le appearances, tactual and otherwise. So in halhiciMation the seen ap- pearance is actually seen and also means, when once the laws of hallucination are known, some verifiable disorder in the nervous system. Neither meaning is further-fetched than the other. It is only by slofly accumulated associations that visible appearances come to mean tangible appear- ances. These associations are acquired in infancy and childhood and have become so fixed that we consider them i)art of the original significance of the visual sensations themselves. In the ease of hallucinations the correct associations have to be acquired in adult life and run' counter to the normal associations. Hence we consider it straining the meaning of words to say that hallu- cinations mean nervous derangement. But the meaning is just that, for the meaning of anything always itself means the known connections it has. Thus we see that there is no reality beyond ap- pearance ; appearances are themselves real and there is no valid ground for restricting the limits of the possibly knowable. Only experience can tell us what is knowable, that is, what is real; for everything real is knowable and everything knowable is real. See HEr.El>; Hume; Kant; Berkeley ; Green, T. H. ; De.scaktes ; Spinoza ; Leibnitz; Locke; Logic; Judgment. The bihliograi)hy of epistemology includes nearly all the philosophical works of modem times. Specially to be mentioned are: Locke, Essaji Coneerninq Unman Uiulerstandiiiri (1C90) ; Berkeley, Treatise Coneernhtfj the Principles of Human Knowterlf/e (1710); Hume, Treatise of Human Kature (17.39) ; id.. Enquiry Concerning Human TJmlerstandinq (1748) ; Kant, Kritik der reinen Yemunft (1781); J. G. Fiehte, Wis- senschaftslehre (1704); Hegel, EneyclopSdie der philosophischpi) Wissensehaften- im firund- risse, in Werkc. vol. vii. (Berlin. 1847) : id., Wissenschaft der Jjoifik. vols. iii.. v. (Berlin 1841); Lotze, Metaphysik (T^ipzig, 1879); id., Loqik (ib.. 1874); id.. ^nkrokosn)OS (ib„ 18.50- 64) ; .John Stuart Mill. Ijoqic. Ratiocinativc and Inductive (London. 184.'?: Sth ed. 1872); id.. Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philos- ophy (ib., 1865) ; Green, Introduction to Hume (il)., 1874); id.. Prolegomena to Ethics (ib., IHaa) ; Bradley, Prineiples of Logic (ib., 1883) ; id., Appearance and Ueulity (2d ed., ib., 1897) ; Bo.sanquet, Knouledge and licality, (ih., 1885); id.. Logic (ib., 1888) ; Caird, Critical Philosophy of Kant (il)., 1889) ; Uobhouse, Theory of Knowl- edge (ib., 1891)) ; Ladd, Philosophy of Knowledge (New York, 189) ; Bowne, Theory of Thought and Knowledge (ib., 1897) ; Ward, Naluralii^m and Agnosticism (London, 1899) ; Pearson, (irannnar of Science (2d ed., ib., 1900) ; Orniond I'oundations of Knowledge (New York, 1901); Cohen, Rants Theorie der Erfahrung (2d ed., Berlin, 1885) ; Riehl. Der philosophische Kriti- eismus (Leipzig, 187(i-87); Schubert-Soldern, (Irundlagen einer Erkenntnisstheorie (ib.. 1884) ; Volkelt, Erfahrung und Oenken (ib., 1886) ; Ave- narius, Kritik der reinen Erfahrung (ib., 1888- 90) ; id., Dei- menschliche Weltbegriff (ib., 1891). KNOWLES, nolz, Jame.s Sheridan ( 1784- 1802). A British dramatist, the author of I'ir- ginius. The Hunchback, and other well-known ))lays. He was the son of James Knowles, a teacher of elocution, and author of a Dictionary of the English Languugr. Born May 12, 1784, at Cork, where his father had a school, he went with the family in 1793 to London, and theie received his education. After holding for some time a counnission in the militia, he became an actor and appeared in Dublin as Hamlet, but he never attained much eminence in his profession. Sub.se- quently he lived for several years in Belfast and Glasgow as a teacher of elocution, and at this ])eriod he made the collection of 7'he Elocntionisil, which has been uuuiy times republished (28th ed., London, 1883). At this time also he laid the foundation of his fame as a dr.amatist. His Caius Gracchus was first ])erformed at Belfast in 1815. Virginius. which followed, was after- wards recast for the London stage, where Mac- readj' took the principal part. Knowles wrote over a dozen other plays, but none of his produc- tions exhibited great genius; they are, however, among the best 'acting plays' produced by an Englishman in modern times. Besides y/ic //hhc/i- back ( 1832). two of his most popular plays have been The Wife (1833) and The Love' Chase (1837). About the year 1845 he left the stage from religious .scruples, joined the Baptists, and distinguished himself for his religious zeal. In 1851 he published a little controversial work, The Idol Demolished by Bis Own Priest, in an- swer to Cardinal Wiseman's lectures on transub- stantiation. Knowles died at Torquay, November 30.1802. Among his publications were two novels, and Lcclures on Dramatic Literature, some of which have been reprinted. A new edition of his Dramatic Works appeared in London in 1873. His Life was written by his son, but privately jjrinted (London. 1872). Consult, also: Mac- ready. Reminiscences (New Y'ork, 1875) ; and !Marsi(in. Oar Rrcenl Actors (London, 1890). KNOWLES, Lucius .Tames (1819-84). An American inventor, born at Hardwick, Mass. While elerk in a shop at Shrewsbury, he carried on niunerous mechanical experiments, in the course of which he invented the steam-boiler safety feed-regulator known by his name. He also studied photography, then recently discov- ered, and for two years manufactured photo- graphic materials and machinery. At Spencer in 1847-49, and later at Warren, he conducted the