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* ITALY. ■to ITALY. Cuneo group, the Ligurian group, the Northern Turin group, and the Dora liallea group. For- tilitatioiis are being eonstrueted to defend the Switzerhmd frontier, as, for instanee, a hirge fort at Var/.o in the valley of the Vedra. Numerous small fortilieations defend the valleys whieh lead into Austria. The second line of fortifications includes Ales- sandria, Casale, Genoa, Piacenza, Verona, Peschiera, JIantua, and Venice. There are but few strongly fortified points in the interior of the peninsula, the principal ones being Uologna, Aul- la, (Irosseto, Capua, and Kome. The coast for- tilieations. in addition to tJcnoa and 'eniec, are: on the ea.st Ancona ; on the south Taranto; on the west Ciaeta, Civitavecchia, Spezia. and Genoa ; Jlessina on the island of Sicily; Maddali'na in Sardinia ; and Portofcrrajo and Porte Longone on the island of Elba, For a description of the army and navy forces, see Ar.miem ; Navies. Government. The present Constitution of Italy is based on the Hloliito granted by Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, tn his subjects in 184S. lien Sardinia e.i)anded into the Kingdom of Italy, its nstitution was taken over as the fundamental law of the new State. Curiously enough, it contains no provision for amendment and has never been formally changed, JIany of its provisions have, however, been indirectly changed by custom, and even by decree of the King, and it seems now to be settled that the power of amendment without limit belongs to the King and Parliament. The Constitution provides with much more detail than that of France for the organization of the Government, and contains a bill of rights intended chiefly to serve as a limitation upon the powers of the King. The Constitution vests the executive power in a King who is hereditary in the House of Savoy, according to the principle of agnatic lineal succession. The sovereign attains his major- ity at eighteen years of age, and his person is inviolable. He is the supreme Iiead of the State, commander of the anny and navy, declares war, negotiates all treaties. But treaties which impose financial burdens upon the State, or which alienate the national territory, must be approved by the Chambers. The King appoints all officers ; issues decrees and ordinances for the execu- tion of the laws under the limitation that he cannot suspend or dispense with existing laws; he sanctions and promulgates the laws; may veto absolutely any project of law; and finally has the power to grant pardons and commuta- tions of penalties. While the Constitution con- ' fers these powers upon the King, it provides that no official act of his shall be valid unless counter- • signed by a Minister who thereby assumes the responsibility for the same. The responsibility of the Ministers is to the Lower House of Par- liament. They are appointed by the King, and may or may not be members of Parliament.

iether mrnibers nr not, they are entitled lo peats in either Ciamlier, but may vote only in the Chamber of which they are members. In Parliament, the Ministers take the lead in the debates. They initiate the measures of the Government, and. in fact, all the more important bills, and .seek to have them enacted into law. They also defend the policy of the Government against attack from the opposition, but when an important measure which they have advocated is voted do^vn by the Chamber, or when a resolu- tion expressing lack of confidence in the Ministry is adopted, they cither resign (jr request the King lo dissolve the Chamber and order a new election, in the hope that the people will sustain their policy and elect representatives who will support them. In addition to their duties in Parliament, the Ministers have charge of the several administrative departments. At present there are eleven of these, viz.: The Interior, Foreign Afl'airs, the Treasury. Finance, .lustice and Keligion. War, Marine. Connnerce and In- dustry and Agriculture, Public Instruction, Posts and Telegraphs, and Public Works. The Coiistitiitinn vests the legislative power in a Senate and Chamber of Deputies with sub- stantial equality of powers in legislation, except that revenue measures must originate in the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is composed of princes of the royal blood who have attained their majority, and of an unlimited number of members who have attained the age of forty years, appointed by the King for life from certain classes designated by the Constitution. These classes are the archbishops and bishops; members of the Royal Academy of seven years' standing; Deputies who have served three terms of five years; certain high civil and military functionaries, such as Cabinet Ministers, ambas- sadors, councilors, judges, generals, admirals, etc.; citizens who pay over .3000 lire in taxes; and citizens illustrious on account of service to the State or for distinction in science, literature, or art. .t present there are alicmt 340 Senators, nearly two-thirds of whom l»elong to the class of e.x-Deputies and large ta.payers. The Chamber of Deputies is composed of 503 members chosen by citizens over twenty-one years of age who can read and write, and who have passed an examination in the elementary branches of the school curriculum. The exami- nation, however, is not required of professional men, members of academies, college graduates, those who pay a direct ta.x of not less than nineteen and four-fifths lire (about four <lollars), and those who pay annual rents of a certain amount. Persons actively enlisted in the mili- tary or naval senice are not permitted to vote. Since 1891 the members have been chosen by districts and on single ticket. The only qualifi- cation for membership in the Chamber of Dep- uties is the attainment of the age of twenty-five years. Disqualified, however, are priests in active scr'ice. and all officials in the pay of the Govern- ment, with a few exceptions. Army and navy ofh- cers. ministers, and certain other high function- aries to the number of forty are eligible. The ten- ure of the Deputies is five years, unless the Cham- ber is dissolved. Neither Senators nor Depu- ties receive compensation for their services, but are allowed free passes over the railroads of Italy. The powers and privileges of the two Chambers are substantially the same, except that the Senate is a court for the trial of Jlinisters who are impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, for the trial of cases of treason and attempts against the safety of the St.ite. and for the trial of its own members. Senators and Deputies are privileged from arrest unless with the consent of their respective Chambers, except in case of flagrant crime, and enjoy absolute freedom of speech while in the discharge of their duties. The Senate elects its minor ofiicers. but its president and vice-president are appointed by the King; the