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* JEWS. 223 JEWS. Abraliam, DaviJ Kimchi, Jeruham, Faiissol, Isaac Nathan, the author of tiie Hebrew Concord- ance. In Italy, Jewish scliolars employed them- selves vith the translation of Arabic and Latin works. Works of an ;i?sthetic character were writ- ten by Inimanucl ben Solomon, the author of the first Hebrew sonnets : and by iloscs de Kioti (born 1380), who wrote a Hebrew imitation of the Difiiia Com media. It was here that the first Hebrew books were printed, at Re^gio, 1475; rieve di Sacco. 1475; Mantua, 147ti; Fcrrara, 1477. In France nii-ntiou may be made of the collectors of the Tosaphot, Closes Jc Coucy. and Jchiel ben Joseph. Germany jjroduced a multi- tude of writers on the law, such as Elcazar Halevi, ileyer of Rothenburjr, Asher. Isserlin, Lipi)mann. Most of the extant Hebrew uuinu- scripts belong to this period; but a fireat part of medieval .rcwish literature lies still unprinlcd in the libraries of Europe. The c'dhth period (1492 to 1755) is not marked by much creative or spiritual force araont; the Jews. In Ualy and the East (1492), in Germany and Poland (1550). in Holland (1G20), Jewish scliolars worked printing presses, while numerous authors wrote in Hebrew. Latin, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Judeo-German. Some of the most eminent theologians, philoso- -jihers, jurists, historians, mathematicians, poets, commentators, lexicographers, grammarians, etc., of this period were Isaac .brabanel. Klia Miah- rahi, I. Arania, J. Habib. Eli:.s Lcvita. Olnuliah Sforno, Joseph Cohen. Gedalia il)n Vahya. Sal. Usque. A.saria de Rossi, David de Pomis. David Gans. Lsaac Troki, I. Luria, J. Caro, iL Alshech, iL .Jaff. .J. Heller, L Aboab. Manasseli ben Israel, David Conforte, Leo de Jlodena. B. ilusapliia. .J. Eyheschiitz, D. Oppenheimcr, J. Emden. M. C. Luzzatto, and others. The ninth period extends from 1755 to the jiresent time. Encouraged by the spirit of the eighteenth century, Sloses Mendelssohn opened, to his coreligionists, ii new era, which, as in the ^Middle Ages, first manifested itself in the na- tional literature. Hs character, contents, ex- pression, and even its phraseology, were changed. Poetry, language, philology, criticism, education, history, and literature have been earnestly cul- tivated. Among the illustrious names nf the early part of this period may lie mentioned Eze- kiel Landau, Elijah Wilna. J. Berlin. ]Ii'ndels- sohn. Maimon. Eendavid. Beer. Euchel, Benzehh, S. Dubno; but the real foundation for the work of the modern critical school was laid hy L. Zunz. whose Ootte^dicHSllirlir Vorlrimc (Icr Jiideii, (Berlin. 1832: 2d cd.. Frankfort. 1892) brought light for the first time into the history of the Midrashie literature; and whose works on the religious poetry of the .Tews have served as a basis for all later scholars. He was ably sec- onded hy S. L. Rapoport, N. Krochmal. Jl. .Tost, S. D. Luzzatto. and M. Steinsclmeider. .Vmong those who have continued the work done by Zunz may be mentioned .. Geiger. L. Dukes. 1L Sachs, S. ilunk. Reggio, Z. Frankel. L. Low. H. Graetz. D. Rosin. M. Joel, A. Jellinek. -T. Derenbourg. S. Buber. M. Kayserling. M. Giidemann. D. Kauf- mann. A. Xeubauer. A. Berliner. D. Chowlson, A. Harka^T". S. Scheehter. and Isidor Loeh. A great infiuenee has also been exerted by the journals and periodicals which in part are de- Toted to purely Iitcrar>- qiiestions. in part treat of religious and practical affairs. One of the lirst of these was the Mcassef (Collector) pub- lished by the circle which gatiiered around Men- delssohn. L. Philij)pson in Bonn, A. Geiger in Berlin, .Szanto in ienna. Lehmami in Jlainz, I'iirst in Leipzig, and 1. JI. Wise in Cincinnati, were among the pioneers in modem Jewish jour- nalism. They have been followed bj- a host of others. The leading periwlicals are Z. Frankel's Monalssclirift fiir die Geschichtc dcr Jttdcn (Breslau. 1851 sqq.); ilonatsschrift fiir die ^yissenscllafl dcs Jmlcnthum.i (Berlin. 1883 sqq.): Wcvue dcs lihidcs ,/uircs (Paris, 1870 sqq.); and the Jeuisli Quarterly Ifcvicic (Lon- don. 18S8 sqq.). There is no country- in Eurojw which does not count Jews among the foremost representatives of its intelkftual jirogress. In Gennany, some of the greatest i)rofessors at the universities and academies have been Jews. The list includes the names of Gans. Benary. Weil, Benfey. Stahl. Derenbourg, Valentin. Lazarus. Ilerz. Steinthal. and Barth. To these may be added Brcal, Opperl. H. Weil, and H. D<'rcnbourg in France, Sylvester in England, G. Biandes in Denmark, and D. H. Miiller in .Uistria. Conspicuous in literature and the various fine arts are the names of Heinrich Heine, Ludwig Brirne. Kaliel l.i'vin ( 'arnhagen), Berthold Auerbach. .Marcus Ilerz. .lules .Tanin, Israel Zangwill, Mark Antokolski. .Tames Darme- stcter, Felix Mendelssohn-Bart holdy. Halevy, ?vleyerbeer, Moscheles, Joachim. Rubinstein, Wieniawski, Grisi, Costa, Rachel, Dawison, Des- soir. Bernhardt. Bini.ioGH.MMiT. For anthropological and ethno- graphical information, tlie following works may l)e mentioned, some of Avhicli also contain valu- able material upon other topics: the general works of Brinton. Lombroso. and Ripley; Fligier, "Zur Anthropologic der Scmiten." in the .Ui7- tcilungvn der nnlliropolofiiselicn fleseilschaft in ^Vicn for 1880: Andree. Ziir }'oll,-sl:inidc der Judcn (Bielefeld. 1881); Blcchmann. Ein lici- iraq zur Anthropolopie dcr J uden {noipat, 1882) ; Wolf. Die Judcn (Vienna. 188."?) : Goldstein, "In- troduction il I'etude anthropologique des .Tuifs." in the I'erup d'anthropolofjic for 1885; .lacohs. "On the Racial Characteristics of Jlodem .Jews." and "The Comparative Distribution of .Tewish Ability." in the Journal of the .Inthropolorjirnl Ti.slilute for 1886: id., f^tudica in Jeu^inh Statis- lirs (London. 1891); Alsljerg. Rasnenmifichuntj im Judcnfum (Berlin. 1891); Luschan. "Die anthropologische Stellung der .Tuden," in the Correspondenzhlalt der dcutschcn anthropolo- f/ischen Oeselhchaft for 1892: .Taeques, "Types juifs." in the Rerue des i^tudes juirrs for 189.3; yicyer. Enfsteliunp des Jtidentums (Halle. 1890). For Hebrew history and religion and the jiost- biblical period to the destruction of .Terusa- leui. th" histories of Stade. Kittel. Guthe. Corn- ill, Wellhausen. Renan. Picpenbring. and Kent represent modern scholarship. For the general history of the .Tews, but chiefly for the period after a.d. 70. the most comprehensive work is Graetz. Gesrhichle dcr Judcn von den iiltextrn Zeitcn bis auf die Gefjenwart (11 vols.. Berlin, 1854-75; abridged English edition. 5 vols., Phila- delphia, 1873). Other general histories are Ewald, Geschichie dr.t ^'olkcs Israel, to the time of B.-ir Cochha (7 vols., 3d ed.. G.'ittingen. 1804- 78: Eng. trans.. 5 vols.. London, 1809-74) : Mil- iran. The Historp nf the Jeus (3 voN.. 4th ed.. London, 1860). There are briefer histories by