Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 11.djvu/233

* JEWS. 207 JEWS. succeeded by Solomon; but, although under the latter prosperity prevails and the power of the kingdom reaches its climax, Solomon himself sets the example of introd'ucing by the side of God the cult of other gods. As a punishment, the kingdom is divided after Solomon's death. The Kingdom of Israel, formed by ten of the tribes, is established in the north ; the Kingdom of Judah, formed by Judah and Benjamin, in the south. The kings of both districts are desig- nated as good or bad according as they obey or fall away from the law revealed through Moses. .4s in the period of the judges, oppression, dis- aster, war, plagues, and finally the destruction of both kingdoms are ordained as a punishment for the sins of the people in not remaining faith- ful to their God. The prophets predict this disaster, but also promise a restoration of the national independence after a period of atone- ment. This history is worked out in detail in the eight historical books of the Old Testament. The critical study, however, of the sources of Hebrew history has made probable, in the first place, that the compilation of the eight his- torical books belongs to the post-exilic period: and, secondly, that none of the written sources on which this compilation is based is older than the tenth century n.c, although material of an earlier date may be incorporated in these sources. ( See Hexateuch. ) As a consequence, much of the data rests upon tradition. The critical ex- amination of this body of tradition furthermore has produced the theory that it contains legendary and mythical hire reshaijed for specific purposes, and that the historical kernel is comparatively small. The view of the religious history of the people is naturally affected by these results of modern scholarship. Tlie laws in the Pentateuch become a series of codes produced between the beginning of the ninth century B.C. and the days of Ezra (c.44.5 B.C.). While, therefore, these codes embody many ancient religious practices adapted to more advanced conditions of religious thought, the bulk of the regulations and the form in which all are couched belong to the later and latest divisions of Hebrew history. The monotheism of the Hebrews becomes a gradual development from the earlier 'henotheism.' w'hich merely involved the recognition of the national deity of the Hebrews, known as Yahweh, the god to whom the Bene Israel owed special allegiance. The monotheistic doctrine in the full sense, in- volving the recognition of a single power con- trolling the destinies of all nations, belongs to Jewish, not to Hebrew, history. Taking this view of the character and compo- sition of the historical books of the Old Testa- ment as a point of departure, and utilizing also the material furnished by other sections of the Old Testament — notably the prophets — the divi- sions of Hebrew history already suggested may still he retained. But it must be recognized that for the first division we have mainly a series of traditions, legends, and myths, with faint reminis- rences of early social conditions and struggles. The historical element in these traditions is small, and much of it refers to events or condi- tions later than the period to which it is ascribed. For the second period, the proportion of the his- torii'al element in the narrative is larger, but it is obscured by legendary embellishments or by an unhistorical setting. Historical material in the proper sense exists only for the third divi- sion; but here, too, it must be separated from legendar}' incrustations and fanciful interpreta- tions before it can be utilized by the historian. The following may be regarded as a sunnnary of Hebrew history from tlu' point of view of modern biblical scholarship. At a period which lies beyond the region of definite historical knowl- edge, groups of Aramean clans, issuing probably from the Arabian desert and skirting the western frontiers of the Babylonian empire, moved north- ward. After entering the Jordan valley they proceeded in a southerly direction. The earliest traditions of the Hebrews are connected with such a movement, which represented a continuous process of indefinite duration. These Aramean clans continued to lead a nomadic life for an indefinite period. Groups of them, however, under the influence of Babylonian and Egyptian cultures, which began to make themselves felt in Palestine and Syria as early as about B.C. 2000, advanced to the higher form of nomadic conditions represented by the pastoral stage. The patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are pictured as having reached this stage. The feel- ing of relationship among certain groups of these nomads was kept alive by natural causes, and from time to time combinations were made among them either for purposes of defense from or at- tack upon other groups. In this way there arose a group, composed of various elements, known as the Hebrews. Among the Tell el-Amarna tablets (C.I400 B.C.) there are seven letters of Abdi- chiba. Viceroy in Jerusalem of King Amenophis IV. of Egj'pt. Egypt appears as the suzerain of the country, and the help of the Pharaoh is de- manded against a warlike people called the Habiri (or Chabiri), who may be the Hebrews, and wjio threaten (lie suzerain's power in the land. On a monument found by Flinders Petrie in tlie Necropolis of Thebes in 1896, Meneph- tah (c.1300 B.C.) seems to mention the He- brews as already settled in Canaan. It is not probable, however, that the members of the Hebrew- group were brought together into a definite union until about B.C. 1000. Each of the elements of which this group was formed had its own traditions, legends, and myths, and the polit- ical union was followed by the combination of the traditions, taking shape in stories about legendary ancestors of clans and popular heroes, about nota'ole conflicts and victories, about oceur- lences at sanctuaries where tribal or local cults existed, and the like. The wanderings of the patriarchs, who represent in part the divergent elements of which the group was composed, may be a reminiscence of the early wanderings of the clans. In the course of their wanderings portions of ithe subsequently organized group came to Egypt. Some sections apparently remained there, while others, after being forced by the natives to work under conditions of serfdom, succeeded in escaping from their taskmasters. The entire history of the people is pervaded by the mem- ory of this event : their whole national exist- ence is based upon it : it inspires their poetry and consecrates their religion. They returned by way of the .Arabian desert to the western boundaries of the settlements of a promiscuous group, known as the Canaanites. who had ad- vanced to the agricultural stage. Before, how- ever, advancing to these boundaries, they re- mained for an indefinite period in the wilderness