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* JAMES. 107 JAMES. of Jewish Christianity into its previous condi- tion, and it is altogether too bold a claim to niake that the seventeen years between Pentecost and the Jerusalem Council were too short a period for this. The Epistle is, therefore, to be dated some time before 50 A.D., from somewlicra in Palestine — most likely Jerusalem, by James, the head of the mother church. It was ad- dressed as an encyclical letter to the near-by Jewish Christian communities — probably those in the Syrian regions to the north, which were quite likely those first evangelized after the Stephen persecution (cf. Acts viii. 1, 4, 40; ix. 1. 2, 19-2.5; xi. 19). Its purpose was to en- courage the readers in face of their peculiar trials, which were easily possible in the time succeeding the above persecution, and at the same time to warn thera against their special degenerating tendencies, which were quite likely to follow upon these trials (cf. specially chs. i and ii.). Bibliography. Commentaries; Mayor (Lon- don, 1892); Wandel (Leipzig, 189G) ; Von Soden, in HnwJkommenlnr zutn Neiten Testa- nieiit (Freiburg, 189.3) ; Burger, in Strack und Zockirr Kommcninr (Munich, 1895) ; Beyschlag, in Mei/er Komme-ntar (Gottingen, 1898)." Intro- ductions: Holtzmann (Freiburg, 1892) ; Salmon (London, 1894); Jiilicher (Freiburg. 1901); Weiss (English trans.. New York, 1S8S) ; Zahn (Leipzig. i900) ; Bacon (New York. 1900) ; Moffatt, The Historical New Testament (London, 1901). Discussions: Fewe, Der Jakobusbrief nach Lehrrinsehduniifien und L'ntstehunijsverhalt- tiissen (Eisenach. 189.3) ; Spitta, Ziir Geschichte vnd Liilcmtur des Urehristextiims, Bd. ii. (Giit- tingen, 1890) ; Dale. Discourses on the Epistle of Jnmes (London. )S9.5) ; Harnack, Chronologic, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1897). JAMES, Protevangelium of. See Apocrt- PIIA. JAMES, Charles {?-1821). An English sol- dier and author. He is remembered chiefly for his eve-witness account of the opening scenes of the French Revolution published under the title Audi Alteram Partem (1793). wherein he ex- tenuates the conduct of the revolutionists. His other writings diverge widely, from Petrarch to Lniirn: A Poetical Epistle (1787), and Poems (2 vols., 1789), to Hints Founded on Facts, or a Vieir of Our Several Military Establishments (1791). and several other publications on mili- tary subjects. JAMES, Edmund Janes (1855—). An Ameri- can political economist and educator, born in Jacksonville. III. He was educated at the North- W'estern (Illinois), Harvard, and Halle univer- sities, and began his life work as principal of the high school at Evanston, 111. (1878-79). removing thence to a similar position at Normal, 111. From 1884 until 1895 he ^vas professor of political and social science in the University of Pennsylvania, but in 1890 he removed to Chicago ti. take the chair of public administration and direct the department of univcrsitv extension. In 1902 he became president of NoHIiwestern University at Evanston. Among his writings are: Stmlien iiber den amerilcanischen Zolltarif{lH77) ; Outline of a Proposed School of Political and Socml Science (1885); Relation of the .Uorfr™ Municipality to the Gas Supply (1SS6); The Lcfial Tender Decisions (1887) ; The Federal Con- VOL. XL— 8. stitution of Germany (1890) ; The Federal Con- stitution of Switzerland (1890) ; The Education of Business Men in Europe (1899); Growth of Great Cities (1900). JAMES, Francis Edward Stuart. See Stuart, .Iaiies Francis Edward. JAMES, George Payne Rainsford (1801- 60). An English novelist, born in London, August 9, 1801. He attended a school at Putney, where he acquired some knowledge of French aiid Italian ; and subsequently educated himself by wide reading and extensive travel on the Con- tinent. After he had won a place among the contemporary novelists, he was appointed' his- toriographer royal under William IV., and, later in life, consul in Virginia, and finally in Venice, where he died May 9, 1800. He began his liter- ary careei' by writing Eastern tales, which were prai.sed by ashington Irving. In 1829 he pub- lished Richelieu, an historical novel thought to be in the manner of Scott. Thereafter novel fol- lowed novel in rapid succession, until the number of novels and tales reached almost a hundred. The best of them seems to be Mart/ of Bur;iundy. He also wrote, or rather dictated, many biog- raphies and histories, among which are Memoirs of Great Commanders (1832); .4. History of Chivalry (1843) ; and Life of Richard I. (4 vols., 1842-49). Following the example of Scott, he collected his novels with elaborate preface.9 (1844-49). Some of them are still obtainable in clieap editions. While in the United States he wrote in connection with M. B. Field Adrian, or the Clouds of the Mind (1852). Jamtvs was immensely popular in his own time. But his conventional moralizing and descriptions have long been out of date. His novels are all con- structed on the same mechanical plan. They open with two horsemen riding through lovely scenes, or with an invocation to them before they appear, or with the variant of two men talking in subdued tones over their cups. Consult : Works (new ed., London and New York. 1903). and Thackeray. "Barbazure."' in "Novels by Emi- nent Hands" (in Punch, London, 1897). " JAMES, Sir Henry (1803-77). An English topographer, born at Rose-in-Vale, near Saint Agnes, Cornwall, and educated at the Woolwich Military Academy. He was lieutenant of engi- neers by 1826, and went thence into the ordnance department, where he made such good use of his opportunities for scientific study that he was appointed superintendent of the geological sur- vey in Ireland in 1844. Two years later he was appointed to a position at the Portsmouth dock- yards, was afterwards made chief topographer and statistician of the War Ollice (1857). and was at the head of the British Ordnance Sui-vey from 1852 to 1875. He published such technical works as Principal Trianqulations of the Earth (2 vols.. 1858) ; Abstract of the Principal Lines of Spirit-Lerellinfi in England and Wales (1861) ; and Plans and Photographs of Stonchenge and of Turnsaehcn in the Island of Lewis, with Notes Relating to the Druids, and Sketches cf Cromlechs in Ireland (1867). He is credited with having invented photo-zincography. JAMES, Henry (1811-82). An American Swedenborgian theologian, lecturer and author. He was born in Albany. N. Y. ; graduated at Union College in 1830; studied at Princeton Theological Seminary until 1835. and then trav-