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* HABENECK. 426 HABIT. and he served as director (ISOU), and conductor of the orchestra from 1821 to 1824. For twenty years, beginninj^ in 1800. he conducted the Societe des Concerts du Conservatoire, and was made permanent conductor in 1828. These concerts at- tained a iMiropean celebrity, and by means of them he introduced Beethoven's symphonies into Trance. He composed two concertos, composi- tions for tlie violin, and several songs. Among iiis pupils were Alard and Leonard. HABERL, h;i1>erl, Franz Xaveb (1840-). A Catholic clergyman and writer on music, born at Obcrcllcnbach, Lower Bavaria. He «as or- dained to the priesthood in 18G2, in which year he was also appointed conductor of music at the Cathedral of Passau, and musical director of the Catholic Seminary in that city. During the period 1807-70 he was organist of the Church of Santa Maria dcU' Anima at Rome, and from 1871 to 1882 served in a similar capacity at Ratisbon. In 1875 he founded in that city the celebrated School for Church ilusic, which under his man- agement became one of the leading institutions of its kind. In 1880 Haberl assumed the editorship of the periodical entitled Musica tiacra. He was also chief editor of the splendid edition of the works of Palestriiia, published by Breitkopf and Hartel (Leipzig, 32 vols., completed in 1894). A Palestrina Society was established by him in 1879. The following are a few of his principal publications: il agister Clwralis (1805; 10th ed. 1893; trans, into English, Spanish, French, and Italian) ; Cucilieti-Kalendar (1876-85; since 1886 published as Kirchenmusikalisches .Jahr- l-uch) ; Psalterium Vespei-tinum (8th ed. 1901) ; Biblior/raphisclier und thematisch-er Mvsikkata- loq des piipstHchen Kapellarchivs im Tatikan zu Rom (ISSS). HABEBIiANDT, ha'ber-lilnt, Gottlieb (1854 — ). An Austrian botanist, born at L'n- gariseh-Altenburg, Hungary, and educated at Vi- enna and Tiibingen. In 1884 he was appointed professor of botany at the university in Gratz, and in 1891 he made a scientific tour through Java. He is a follower of Schwendener. His publications, mainly on the physiology and bi- ology of plants, include: Die Schulxinrichtun- gen in der Entwickliinp der Keimpflanze (1877) : Physioloffische Pftanzenanntomie (1884); and Eine hoianische Tropenreise (1893). HABEBLIN", hfi'ber-len, Karl Friedrich (1756-1808). A German authority on constitu- tional law. He was born and educated at Helm- stedt, and was professor of Gei-man constitutional law at Erlangen (1782-86) and Helmstedt (1786- 1808). His fame rests chiefly on the works en- titled Haiulbncli des drutschcn f^taatsrechts (2d ed. 1797) and l>ns detitselir fitrwtsnrrhir (16 vols., 1790-1808), which contain valuable essays and treatises on constitutional and statistical affairs. HABICHT, hlinjiKt, LuDwiG (18.^0-). A German novelist, born at Sprottau. His princi- pal novels include: Der fftndtsehreiher i^on Liea- mtz (2d ed. 1881 ) ; . .Sfc7iem. und Sein (2d ed. 1878); Er muss studieren (1896); and Wider- spriiehe (1899). HABIETINEK, ha-be'tl-nek, Karl (1830—). An An^itrinn statesman, born in Prague. He graduated at Prague University (German) in 1855, in 1858 was appointed lecturer in Aus- trian civil law at Vienna, from 1804 to 1868 was at Prague as professor of civil law and the law of trade and exchange, and from 1808 to 1871 occupied a similar chair at Vienna. lu 1871 he was for a time Jlinister of .Justice, in 1879 became a life member of the Lpjicr House of the Reichsrat, and in 18S1 vice-president of the Reichsgerieht, a tribunal for the scltlemcnt of conflicts between the ordinary administrative courts and the special couit for Governmeftt officials. He was vice-president of the Supreme Court of Justice and Cassation from 1881 to 1889, and in the latter year was appointed its lirst president. HAB'INGTON. William (1005-54). An Eng- lish poet, born at Hindlip, Worcestershire, of Roman Catliolic parentage. He was educated at Suint-Onier and Paris; but declined to become a Jesuit, and returned to England. He married Luc)' Herbert, youngest daugliter of Lord Powis, and retired to his ancestral estate, Habington addressed to his wife, under the name of Castara, a series of beautiful lyric poems, distinguished from similar contemporary work by their purity of tone. To the volume entitled Castara (1034), additions, including religious poems, were made in 1035 and 1640. Consult: Arber, English lie- prints (London, 1870) ; and Ward, English Poets, vol. ii. (ib., 1880-83). HABIT (from Lat. habitus, condition, from habere, to hold). In its most extended sense, a settling of any plastic material into determinate form. Since the organism at large, and the ner- vous system in particular, are characterized by nothing so much as by plasticity, more especially during the years of growth that precede maturity, it is clear that habit must play an important part in biology, as well as in the sciences of mind (psychology, ethics) that follow upon bi- ology. Habit, in this technical sense, is common both to man and to the lower animals. It may be defined as "a fixed tendency,' the result of repetition and association, "to think, feel, or act in a particular way under special circumstances" (Sully). Habit finds its principal importance in the sphere of voluntary action, where it pre- sents two points of psychological interest. In the first place, it "simplifies the movements required to achieve a given result, makes them more ac- curate, and diminishes fatigue." In the second place, it "diminishes the conscious attention with which our acts are performed" (.James). Phys- iologically regarded, habit thus implies that ner- vous functions are relegated l)y the higher to the lower (automatic) centres: the cortex is relieved of so many burdens, and is free for so many new combinations. Psychologically re- garded, it implies the possibility of mental prog- ress: what we have learned becomes a matter of course with us, unconsciously utilized when the right cue is given, so that we can drop, without fear of forgetting, the topic that we have been workins; upon, and proceed to new acquisitions upon the orsanized basis of previous effort. It is important to distinguish accurately be- tween 'habit,' 'custom,' 'usage,' and 'fashion.' Habit is the widest term: it "covers all and every form of voluntary action that we have made our own" (Wundt). Habit is therefore an individual rule of conduct. Usage is social habit: there are family usages. local usages, etc.; but we do not speak of an individual usage. Custom