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* GREECE. 208 GBEECE. tcirancan countries, chiefly from Turkey. There are aUo a i)olyteehiiie and two agricultural schools, a military academy, and several naval schools. BniLiOGKAi'HY. Schmidt, Beitriigc zur physi- kalisclieii Oeographie von GriechenUind (Leipzig, 1804-70) : Brockhaus, Qrievhenlaiid, gtoyiaphisch, geschichtlich, kulturhislorisch, vou deii iillestcii Zeileii his auf die Gcgenw<irt dargestelU (Leip- zig, 1870) ; Finlay, History of Greece (0.ford, 1877): Reclus, Geognipliie universelle, vol. i. (Paris, 1877) ; Jebb, Modern Greece (London, ISSO) ; Wordsworth, Greece: Pictorial, Descrip- tne, and Historical (London, 1882) ; Bent, The Cyclades (London, 1SS3) : Hanson, The Land of Greece (London. 1885) ; Cheston, Greece in 1887 (London, 1887) ; Mahaffy. Rambles and Studies in Greece (.Sd ed., London, 1897) ; Hermann. Lchrbitch der griechischen Staatsaltertiimer (Freiburg, 1880) ; Eodd, The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece (London, 1892) ; Freeman, Studies of Travel in Greece and Italy (New ■i'ork, 1893) ; Samuelson, Greece: Present Condi- tion and Recent Progress (London, 1894) ; Jane- way, Glimpses at Greece (London, 1897) ; Ser- geant, Greece in the Xineteenth Century (London, 1897) : Seignobos, Histoire politique de I'Europe contemporaine (Paris, 1897) ; Pausanias, De- scription of Greece, translated by Frazer (6 vols.. New York, 1898) ; Lavisse, Histoire g6n^ale, vol. X. (Paris, 1898) : Symonds, Sketches and Studies ■in Italy and Greece (London, 1898) : de Halasfy. Coyispectus FlorcF Ch-cecw (Leipzig. 1900) ; Philip- son, '"Beitriige zur Kenntniss der griechischen In- selwelt," in Petermanns Mitteilungen, No. cxxxiv. (Gotha, 1901) : Guillaume, Grece con- temporaine (Brussels, 1901). Consult also on the ethnology: Montelius. "Die Bronzezeit im Orient und in Griechenland," in Archiv fiir An- ihropologie, vol. xxi. (Brunswick, 1892) : Vir- chow. Vehey griechische Schiidcl aus alter vnd neuer Zeit (Berlin. 1893) ; Cara, Gli Bethei Pe- lusgi (Roma, 1894) : Stephanos, "La Gr&ce au point de vue naturel. ethnnlogique, anthropolo- gique, demographiqvie," in Dictionnaire encyclo- pedique des sciences medicnlcs (Paris. 1884) : and on education in ancient Greece: Mahaffy. Old Greek Ednealion (London. 1881); Grasberger, Erziehnng nnd Vnterricht itn klnssischen Alter- tnm (Wiirzburg. 1864-81) ; Girard, L'education athinienne (Paris, 1891). HISTORY. Ancient Histobt. (See paragraph in this ar- ticle under Ethnology.) The Hellenes, or later inhabitants of Greece, were a branch of the Indo- European, also called Indo-Germanic or Aryan, speech-family. They are supposed to have entered the country at a remote period from the north and northeast in successive waves of migration, and were composed of various independent tribes. It was not until after the time of Homer that they received the common name Hellenes. By Homer they are called Danaans. Argives. and Achseans, while the Hellenes were in his time a small tribe in Tlipssaly. The name 'Greeks' was another tribal name, generalized by the Italians. The early history of the Greeks is one of fable, where- in the achievements of centuries are compressed into single generations, and the movements of whole peoples are described as the adventures of heroes. To this so-called Heroic Age belong the deeds associated with such names as Heracles. Theseus, and Perseus, and the great undertakings known as the Argonaulic Expedition, the Expedi- tion of the Seven against Thebes, and the Siege of Troy. Much light is thrown upon the civiliza- tion of the early period by the remains found at Mjeena;, Tiryns, and other places. (See Abch.e- OLOGY. ) The first truly historical landmark in the his- tory of Greece is ollered by the so-called Dorian migration. The waves of migration which as early as the stone age had peopled Greece with the tribes from the north were conlinued from time to time after the country had been occupied. One such wave was that of the Dorians, who, at some time rouglily placed between B.C. 1200 and 1000, de- scending from their mountainous home in the central part of Northern Greece, overran the Peloponnesus and enslaved or drove out the former inhabitants of the land. One of these displaced tribes, the Achseans, settled on the southern shore of the Corinthian Gulf, expelling the lonians. who took refuge in Attica. The story of these migrations is compressed into a single generation, but it doubtless represents the con- quests of at least two or three centuries. One of the effects of the movement was the coloniza- tion by Greeks of the lands farther east — the islands of the .-Egean Sea and the coast of Asia jMinor. The expelled peoples were obliged to seek new homes, and three important streams of colonization poured across the sea : the .Eo- lians. so called, who settled the islands and coast- land to the north; the lonians, who settled the islands of the central .Egean and the middle por- tion of the Asiatic coast : and the Dorians farther south, who occupied Crete and other inlands and the southwestern coast of Asia !Miiior. Several centuries later, in the eighth and seventh cen- turies B.C., another great colonizing impulse spread through the Grecian lands; the cause of this impulse, however, was not external pressure, but internal expansion. This movement carried Greek civilization to Sicily. South Italy (Magna Graecia). Africa, and other regions. The history of Greece is for the most part one of individual States, each fired with the spirit of independence and the desire for freedom, and each seeking to solve the prolilem of national development in its own way and according to its own impulses. The two States which became most prominent, and with which history has prin- cipally to do. are Athens and Sparta. Sparta from early times held the lead in the Pelopon- nesus, where Argos was long her rival. In the seventh century B.C. she subdued ilessenia. Her peculiar political and social institutiojis are ascribed to the lawgiver Lycurgus. who. accord- ing to the common tradition, lived in the ninth century B.C. At the head of the Government were two hereditary kings: "hut their power was lim- ited, and in historical times was confined to cer- tain priestly functions, the command of the arnw in war and the enjoyment of a position of honor- ary distinction in the State. The actual power was vested in the ephori (q.v. ). The development of the Athenian political sys- tem was carried further than that of the Spartan system. The regular course of political history in the Greek States was this: The kingly form nf government, which was prevalent in the Heroic Age. gave place at a later time to an oligarchy of birth : this in turn became transformed into a one-man power, or 'tyranny': and the 'tyranny"