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* EXEGESIS. 353 EXEGESIS. quainted with the work of the English Deists, ami enriched science with excellent commentaries. Hadrian Reland (died 1718) and Albert Schultena (died 1 7 i> 1 ) elucidated the text by their histor- ical and philological investigations. I'ampcgius Vitringa (died 17-2) wrote a learned exposition of Isaiah, and .1. (',. Carpzov (died I 7 f > 7 ) an ex- cellent introduction to the old Testament. Akin to the Deists, lint more learned, was Hermann Samuel Keimarus (died 1708), whose Wolfen- buttler Fragmente, published by Lessing in 1774, searehingly examined the Pentateuch. Voltaire (died 1778) drew from English thinkers many of the arguments with which he undermined tradi- tional beliefs concerning the Bible. Meanwhile the Quaker leaven was spreading. Pietistic exe- gesis «as at first allegorizing, hut gradually be- came infected with rationalism. The transition may be seen in Zinzendorf (died 17(i0). Edel- ma'nn (died 17(17), C. F. Bahrdt, (died 1792), and J. D. Michaelis ( died 1791 ) : but especially in Johann Salomo Semler (died 17111), whose dis- cussion of the Canon proved of great value, and Heinrich Corrodi (died 17113), whose studies of the chiliastic movements prepared him to under- stand the Book of Daniel. J. G. Herder (died 1803) contributed greatly to an understanding of Canticles and other poetic parts of the Bible. In- ilnenced by the philosophy of Christian Wolff (died 1754), and that of Immanuel Kant (died 1804), a rationalistic school of biblical interpre- tation was formed, among whose chief represen- tatives II. E. G. Paulus (died 1851), by his studies of prophecy and of the Book of Joshua ; Karl David Ilgen, by his remarkable work on the documents in the Temple archives at Jeru- salem (1798); and Paulus's disciple, Johann Gottfried Eiehhorn, by his masterly introduction (1780-83), particularly furthered biblical ex- egesis. The nineteenth century witnessed a marked progress in the interpretation of the Hebrew Bible. Among the Catholic exegetes Johann Jahn (died 1810), J. G. Herbst (died 1830), Franz Kaulen. and J. Comely, by their introductions; Anton Scholtz, by his bold and thorough textual criticism ; and Gustav Bickell, by his meritorious studies of Hebrew poetry, deserve special men- tion, though many others made substantial contributions. But the leadership in biblical exegesis was maintained by Lutheran theologians in Germany. It was largely, if not wholly, due to their influence that competent and independent interpreters appeared in other European coun- tries and in America in the latter part of the century. Hegel, Sehleiermacher, and De Wette made a dec)) impression upon theological thought, and their disciples reached with a bound many critical positions to which a later generation has been forced back after a significant and valuable reaction. W. M. L. de Wette (died 1840) recog- nized the mythical and legendary element in the Pentateuchal narratives, placed the date of the Deuteronomic law in the reign of Josiah, and dis- cussed the character of the Chronicler's historiog- raphy. He became the chief representative of the fragmentary hypothesis of Geddes, introduced into Germany by Johann Severin Vater in 1802, though the possibility of a more extended docu- ment supplemented by later hands, which was presented by Stahelin, Bleek, and Ewald, subse- quently attracted him. His pupils. C. P.W. Gram- berg in 1829, Wilhelm Vatke and J. F. L. George in 1835, under the influence of Meg, I' philosophy of history, traced the growth oi customs and idi anticipating some important conclusions reached by later exegete under the influence of the phi- losophy of evolution. Bruno Bauer in 1838 dis- cussed the (rue character of the Book of Job an 1 advocated its post-exilic origin. The ripest exeget- ical fruit of the rationalistic school was the com- mentary on Isaiah published in 1821 by Eich- horn's pupil, Wilhelm Gesenius (died L842). That, some of the critical positions were tempo- rarily lost was not so much due to the vain at- tempts of llcngMenlieig (died 1869), Havernick (died 1845), and Keil (died 1894) to rehabili- tate traditional views, as to the natural sus- picion of a construction of Israel's history. I I on philosophical assumptions and to a truer ap- preciation of the potency of personality a^ against impersonal force Quite the most influential Old Testament exegete of the middle of the century was Heinrich Ewald (died 1875). His learning, insight, and independence admirably fitted aim to interpret the prophets and poets of Israel, but his sense of the historic development was not so ken. His most eminent disciple, August Dillmann (died 1894), in his learned and critical commentaries maintained some of Ewald's conservatism. Jus- tus Olshausen, in his commentary on the Psalms (1853), first perceived clearly the essentially Maccabean background. Hermann Hupfeld (died 1866) in the same year brought Pentateu- chal criticism back to the documentary hypothe- sis by a masterly characterization of the sources of Genesis, and later wrote an excellent commen- tary on the Psalms. The critical investigation of Jeremiah, begun by F. C. Movers in 1837, was carried on by Ferdinand Hitzig (died 1875), who also elucidated the Psalms and the minor proph- ets by his keen textual and literary criticism. The commentaries of August Knobel (died 1863) were marked by -erudition and originality. In 1866 Karl Heinrich Graf proved that the laws of the priestly code were post-exilic; and the char- acter of this priestly document was searchingly examined by the distinguished Semitic scholar Theodor NBldeke, in 1869. Of great importance was the series of contributions by Julius Well- hausen to Pentateuchal criticism, begun in 1876, to which he has added a careful study of the text of Samuel (1871), and suggestive notes on the minor prophets ( 1892). The brilliancy of his style, the cogency of his reasoning, and the har- mony of his conception of history with the doc- trine of evolution have given a wide currency to his views. In 1881 the Zeitschrift fiir alttes- tamentliche Wissensehaft was founded by Bern- hard Stade. In it. much valuable work has ap- peared — none more important than that of the editor himself, whose critical acumen not less than his historical insight may also be seen in his history of Israel (1888). Another admirable historian, Eduard Meyer, has also enriched bib- lical criticism by many a contribution. Adalbert Merx, in an exceedingly learned and valuable commentary on Joel in 1879, paved the way for an understanding of that book. Karl Budde. by his Biblische Urgeschiehte in 1883 and his studies on Judges and Samuel, as well as by his important discovery of the Kina metre, has done good ser- vice to biblical exegesis. Karl Siegfried by his painstaking studies in Hellenistic philosophy was admirably prepared for his thorough investiga- tion of Ecclesiastes (1893). An exegete of